/*' 


LIBRARY 

UNIVi-K:..  :  \  OF 
CALIFORNIA 

SAN  DIEGO 


HORATIO  NELSON. 

Wherever  brave  deeds  are  treasured  and  told, 

In  the  tales  of  the  deeds  of  yore, 
Like  jewels  of  price  in  a  chain  of  gold 

Are  the  name  and  the  fame  he  bore." 


A  SCHOOL   HISTORY 


OF 


ENGLAND 


BY 


HARMON    B.    NIVER,  A.M. 

Teacher  in  New  York  City  Public  Schools 


REVISED 


AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 

NEW   YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

BOSTON  ATLANTA 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  BY 
HARMON  B.  NIVER. 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 


Niv.  Sch.  Hist.  Eng.  Rev. 
E.  P.  1 


MADE   IN   U.  S.  A. 


PBEFACE. 


THE  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  furnish  a  narrative  history 
of  England  for  use  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  elementary 
schools.  It  traces  not  only  the  growth  of  those  principles  of 
liberty  and  self-government  which  are  the  common  heritage 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  but  also  the  gradual  development 
of  the  British  Empire  and  its  rise  to  the  front  rank  of  the 
world's  manufacturing  and  commercial  powers. 

In  the  selection  of  materials  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  excite  an  interest  that  shall  stimulate  the  pupil  to  a  search 
for  further  knowledge.  To  this  end  there  is  given,  in  the 
appendix,  a  list  of  books  easily  accessible,  some  of  which 
should  be  in  every  class-room  where  English  history  is  taught. 
It  is  a  good  rule  never  to  read  less  than  two  accounts  of  the 
same  event.  This  provides  training  in  comparison,  discrim- 
ination, and  judgment,  thereby  accomplishing  the  main 
objects  of  historical  study.  The  questions  and  topics  for  home 
reading  that  are  appended  to  each  section  are  intended  to 
encourage  independent  thought  and  to  supplement  the  work 
of  the  class-room. 

The  pupil  should  not  be  asked  to  memorize  paragraphs, 
but  to  discover  the  topics  of  which  they  treat,  and  to  expand 
these  in  his  own  language.  If  this  practice  is  persevered  in, 
he  will  soon  acquire  facility  in  the  process  of  gathering  ideas 
from  the  printed  page,  and  in  writing  and  talking  about 
them  afterward.  The  possession  of  such  power  is  the  basis 
of  all  historical  study. 


5 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

I.     BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.D 

II.     ANGLO-SAXON     ENGLAND 26 

III.     ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS .56 

IV.     THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 7."> 

V.     THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 102 

VI.     THE  HOUSES  OF  LANCASTER  AND  YORK 133 

VII.     THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 156 

VIII.     THE  STUART  KINGS  AND  CROMWELL 203 

IX.     THE  STUART  KINGS  AND  ORANGE     .      .      .      .      .      .      .  242 

X.     THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  (1714-1763) 284 

XI.     THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  (1763-1837) 308 

XII.     THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER   (1837 — ) 359 

Appendix :  Chronological    Table i 

Books  for  Reference ix 

Index x 


(JKXEALOG1CAL  TABLES. 
Kings  of  England     .      .   37,  48,  56,  75,  102,  133,  146,  156,  203,  284 


PRINCIPAL  MAPS. 


County    Map    of    England 

and    Wales        . 
Roman   Britain      .... 
Britain    in    584,    during    the 

Anglo-Saxon    Conquest 
England    in    878,    after    the 

treaty    of    Wedmore      .    . 
Dominions  of  Henry  II.  . 

Scotland 

France      in      the      Hundred 

Years'    War 


England     in     Wars     of     the 


6, 7          Roses 
24      Europe     in 

Century 
30 


144 


the      Sixteenth 

164 

England  in  the  Civil  War   .   l':r> 

Ireland I'.' 12 

42      India 298 

76      Eastern    North    America    in 

106          1754 303 

K u rope  in  1795      ....    .'526 
114      The   British   Empire      .   400,401 
8 


A  SCHOOL  HISTOKY  OF  ENGLAND. 

I.     BRITAIN  BEFOEE  449  A.  D. 
A.     EARLY  BRITAIN. 

The  English  Race  to-day  occupies  or  controls  a  fourth 
of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  Four  hundred  years  ago, 
it  held  only  part  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  We  are  to 
learn  in  this  book  how  the  English  have  gone  out  from  their 
island  home  into  foreign  countries  to  plant  colonies  and  to 
build  up  the  British  Empire. 

Britain,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  a  forest  wilderness  inhab- 
ited by  savage  tribes.  We  shall  study  the  changes  by  which 
it  has  become  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  country,  the 
seat  of  great  cities,  and  the  home  of  wealth  and  learning. 

"We  Study  English  History  because  our  history  has  been 
so  closely  related  with  that  of  England.  The  thirteen  Amer- 
ican colonies  were  settled  chiefly  by  English  people,  who 
bron.ght  from  the  mother  country  their  language,  customs,  laws, 
and  forms  of  government.  English  history,  therefore,  in- 
cludes the  early  history  of  our  own  nation.  If  we  seek  to 
know  why  the  American  people  elect  their  own  rulers  and 
make  their  own  laws,  we  shall  find  one  answer  in  the  fact  that 
the  savage  Angles  and  Saxons  of  the  North  German  forests 
did  these  very  things.  When  they  settled  in  Britain  and  be- 
came Englishmen,  we  find  them  still  governing  their  own 
towns,  voting  taxes,  and  electing  the  king. 

9 


10 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D. 


Under  the  strong  rule  of  some  of  their  kings,  the  people 
lost  their  power  for  a  time;  but  they  succeeded  in  getting 
back  what  they  had  lost.  King  John  was  compelled  to  grant 
the  Great  Charter,  assuring  to  the  people  many  of  the  rights 
and  liberties  that  we  enjoy  to-day.  The  spirit  of  liberty  and 
independence  has  triumphed  over  every  attempt  at  tyranny, 
until  we  have  now  in  both  England  and  America  what  Abraham 
Lincoln  called  "a  government  of  the  people,  for  the  people, 
and  by  the  people." 


EUKOPE  IN  EAKLT  TIMES. 

The  British  Isles,  consisting  of  two  large  islands  and 
many  smaller  ones,  are  separated  from  the  mainland  of 
Europe  by  a  narrow  but  stormy  and  dangerous  channel. 
This  channel  has  often  served  as  a  defense  against  enemies, 
and  has  enabled  the  English  to  live  in  their  own  way  without 
being  disturbed  by  many  of  the  wars  in  Europe.  Shake- 
speare, in  his  play  "  Eichard  II."  calls  his  country 


EARLY  BRITAIN 

"  This  royal  throne  of  kings,  this  sceptered  isle, 
This  fortress,  built  by  Nature  for  herself, 
Against  infection  and  the  hand  of  war ; 
This  happy  breed  of  men,  this  little  world, 
This  precious  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea, 
Which  serves  it  in  the  office  of  a  wall, 
Or  as  a  moat  defensive  to  a  house, 
Against  the  envy  of  less  happier  lands ; 
This  blessed  plot,  this  earth,  this  realm,  this  England." 


The  islands  belong  to  the  class  known  as  "continental 
islands,"  inasmuch  as  they  were  once  joined  to  the  mainland 
of  Europe.  The  sea  cliffs  of  Dover  and  Calais  are  made  of 
the  same  white,  chalky  material,  and  the  strait  between  them 
is  less  than  two  hundred  feet  deep. 

On  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  seas  surrounding  Britain 
are  often  found  the  bones  of  the  same  kinds  of  land  animals 
whose  remains  have  been  dug  up  on  the  neighboring  coasts. 
These  animals  could  not  have  crossed  by  water  from  the  con- 
tinent to  Britain,  so  we  must  believe  that  the  British  islands 
were  once  part  of  the  mainland. 

The  mild  climate  and  the  natural  resources  of  Great 
Britain  have  well  fitted  it  to  become  the  home  of  a  great 
and  progressive  nation.  Navigable  rivers  lead  well  into 
the  interior,  and  the  mountains  contain  vast  supplies  of 
coal,  iron,  copper,  and  tin.  The  upper  waters  of  the  riv- 
ers are  rapid  enough  to  turn  the  wheels  of  mills,  and  the 
deep  and  numerous  estuaries  along  the  coast  afford  safe 
harbors. 

The  Earliest  Races  in  Britain  made  no  written  records. 
We  can  judge  of  their  character  only  by  the  tools  and  weapons 
which  they  have  left.  In  the  gravel  washed  down  by 
rivers,  in  shell  heaps  along  the  coast,  and  in  caves  where 
these  early  savages  made  their  homes,  are  found  rude  pot- 
tery, stone  knives,  scrapers,  arrow  and  spear  heads,  and  axes. 
Some  of  these  implements  were  roughly  shaped  by  strik- 


12 


BRITAIN   BEFORE   449   A.D. 


ROUGH  STONE 
ABBOWHEAUS. 


ing  one  stone  upon  another ;    others  were  ground  into  more 
exact  form  to  be  used  with  handles. 

The  Stone  Age.  The  races  that  lived  upon  the  earth 
before  written  history  begins  are  named  according  to  the 
works  that  they  have  left.  Thus  we 
have  in  Britain  an  "Age  of  Rough 
Stone,"  an  "Age  of  Polished  Stone/' 
and  an  "  Age  of  Bronze." 

It  is  plain  from  the  nature  of  their 
tools  and  weapons  that  the  men  of  the 
Eough  Stone  Age  were  rude  savages 
who  lived  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and 
on  plants,  berries,  and  roots.  Their  homes  were  caves, 
where  we  still  find  their  skeletons  mingled  with  the  remains 
of  animals  that  were  killed 
for  food. 

The  savage  of  the  Pol- 
ished Stone  Age  made  a 
hut  by  digging  a  hole  in 
the  earth  and  roofing  it  POLISHED  STONE  AX. 

with  boughs  of  trees  covered  with  slabs  of  baked  clay.     He 
tamed  animals,  cultivated  the  soil,  and  made  rude  pottery 

and  coarse  cloth.  He  had  some 
idea  of  religion  and  a  future 
life,  since  we  find  in  the  mounds, 
or  "barrows/7  where  he  buried 
his  dead,  weapons,  tools,  and 
various  dishes  for  food  and  drink, 
which  it  was  supposed  would  be 
needed  after  death.  The  men  of 
this  age  were  warlike.  The 
earlier  savage  with  his  club  and  flint  knife  retreated  before 
the  newcomer  with  his  bow  and  arrow,  spear,  and  ax.  The 
savages  of  this  later  Stone  Age  used  rafts  and  canoes.  We 


POTTEBY    FROM    STONE    AGE. 


EARLY  BRITAIN  13 

think,  therefore,  that  Britain  was  probably  separated  from 
the  mainland  at  this  time. 

The  Celtic  Race,  a  more  civilized  people,  then  came,  armed 
with  weapons  of  bronze.  Many  centuries  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  the  Celts,  fair-haired  and  taller  than  the  earlier  race, 
spread  over  western  Europe.  They  had  learned  to  smelt 
copper  and  tin,  of  which  bronze  is  made,  and  to  mold  spear- 
heads and  axes.  Celtic  tribes  called  Gaels  crossed  into  the 
British  Isles  and  overcame  the  natives 
there,  establishing  themselves  in  clans  or 
villages  under  chiefs.  Later  Celtic  BRONZE  AX;  LATEB 
tribes  called  Britons,  coming  into  CELTIC  PERIOD. 
"  Albion,"  as  Britain  was  then  named,  pressed  the  Gaels  west- 
ward into  Ireland  and  northward  into  Scotland,  keeping  the 
central  and  southeastern  parts  of  Britain  for  themselves. 

It  is  in  the  time  of  these  later  Celtic  tribes  that  the  earliest 
written  mention  was  made  of  the  British  Isles.  Greek  his- 
torians and  geographers  wrote  of  them  as  the  "  Tin  Islands," 
three  or  four  hundred  years  before  Christ.  The  tin  mines  in 
Cornwall  were  worked  by  the  Phoenicians  in  the  days  of  King 
Solomon  and  of  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre.  The  Phoenicians  kept 
secret  the  source  from  which  they  obtained  the  metal.  A  ship 
belonging  to  Carthage,  a  Phoenician  colony,  was  once  followed 
by  a  Roman  captain  who  wished  to  learn  the  location  of  the 
mines.  But  the  Carthaginian  captain  ran  his  vessel  ashore 
on  the  coast  of  Gaul  and  wrecked  it  rather  than  reveal  the 
secret. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  does  commerce  help  to  civilize  a  nation? 

2.  Why  are  savage  races  more  warlike  than  civilized  ones? 

3.  What  are  continental  islands  ? 

4.  How  do  we  learn  about  nations  who  have  left  no  written  records? 

5.  Distinguish  savage,  barbarous,  semicivilized,  and  civilized  nations. 


14:  BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D.  [55  B.  G 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  TIN  MINES  OF  BRITAIN.     Lee,  Source  Book  of  English  History, 

pp.  70-72;  Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  His- 
tory, pp.  3-6. 

2.  REMAINS  OF  EARLY  RACES  IN  BRITAIN.     Gardiner,  Student's  His- 

tory of  England,  pp.  1-10;  Creasy,  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
English  Constitution,  Ch.  II. 

B.    THE  ROMANS  IN  BHITAIN,  55  B.  c.  TO  410  A.  D. 

Julius  Caesar,  the  great  Roman  general,  has  given  us 
the  best  information  that  we  have  of  the  early  Britons.  The 
Eomans  of  his  time  ruled  most  of  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  were  the  greatest  civil- 
izing nation  in  the  world.  Caesar  was 
made  governor  of  the  Roman  provinces 
near  the  Alps,  and  in  four  years  he  con- 
quered the  Gauls  and  extended  the 
Roman  rule  throughout  their  country 
from  the  Alps  to  the  English  Channel. 

The  First  Invasion  of  Britain.  The 
JULIUS  C^SAH.  Gauls,  like  the  Britons,  were  of  the  Celt- 
ic race,  and  in  the  wars  with  Caesar  the  Britons  had  come  to 
the  help  of  their  relatives  south  of  the  Channel.  Caesar  re- 
solved to  teach  the  Britons  that  it  was  dangerous  to  oppose 
the  Romans.  He  was  an  author  as  well  as  a  general,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  wars  in  Gaul  and  Britain.  He  tells 
us  in  this  book  that  ill  the  year  55  B.  c.  he  set  sail  with 
ten  thousand  men  and  about  a  hundred  ships,  and  ap- 
proached the  white  cliffs  of  Dover.  He  found  the  heights 
crowned  with  multitudes  of  armed  Britons,  who  with  loud 
cries  and  threatening  gestures  opposed  his  lauding.  As  the 
coast  was  rocky,  he  sailed  eight  miles  eastward,  to  a  sandy 
beach  that  offered  an  easy  approach.  The  Britons  followed 


55  B.  C.] 


THE  ROMANS  IN  BRITAIN 


15 


ROMAN  WAB  SHIP. 


along  the  coast  with  their  war  chariots  and  horses.  Great 
numbers  of  them,  armed  with  bronze  axes,  spears,  and  bows 
and  arrows,  tried  to  prevent  the  Eomans  from  reaching  the 
shore.  Here  is 
Caesar's  account  of 
the  landing: 
"While  our  men 
were  hesitating  on 
account  of  the 
depth  of  the  sea, 
he  who  carried  the 
eagle  of  the  tenth 
legion  cried  out, 
'  Leap,  fellow-sol- 
diers, unless  you  wish  to  betray  your  eagle  to  the  enemy. 
I  for  my  part  will  perform  my  duty  to  the  republic  and  my 
general/  When  he  had  said  this  with  a  loud  voice,  he  leaped 
from  the  ship  and  carried  the  standard  toward  the  enemy. 
Then  our  men,  urging  one  another  not  to  bring  disgrace  upon 
the  army,  all  leaped  from  the  ship.  When  those  in  the  near- 
est vessels  saw  them,  they  speedily  followed  and  approached 
the  enemy.  The  battle  was  fought  vigorously  on  both  sides/' 
The  Britons  on  horseback  attacked  the  invaders  as  they  were 
wading  through  the  water,  but  the  Eomans  made  their  way  to 
the  shore,  and  as  soon  as  they  got  a  firm  footing  on  dry 
ground,  they  put  the  Britons  to  flight. 

The  Britons  were  so  much  impressed  by  the  bravery  of  the 
Eomans  that  in  a  day  or  two  they  sent  envoys  to  ask  for 
peace.  This  Caesar  was  ready  to  grant,  but  he  demanded,  as 
a  pledge  for  their  good  behavior  in  the  future,  that  some  of 
their  chiefs  remain  in  his  camp.  Some  hostages  were  given 
at  once,  but  the  Britons  explained  that  others  were  in  distant 
parts  of  the  country,  and  it  would  take  a  few  days  to  bring 
them. 


16  BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D.  [55  B.  C. 

In  the  mean  time,  misfortunes  came  upon  the  Romans. 
The  ships  containing  the  cavalry  were  driven  back  to  Gaul  by 
a  storm ;  some  of  the  vessels  on  the  shore  were  wrecked  by  the 
high  tides;  and  the  Britons  attacked  and  killed  some  of  the 
soldiers  sent  out  to  collect  food.  A  large  force  of  Britons  also 
gathered  near  the  Eoman  camp.  Caesar  made  a  vigorous  at- 
tack on  them,  and  pursued  them  to  one  of  their  villages,  which 
he  burned.  Again  came  envoys  to  the  Eoman  camp,  asking 
peace.  Caesar  again  granted  it,  but  asked  for  twice  as  many 
hostages  as  before.  He  did  not  wait  to  receive  them,  how- 
ever, but  returned  hastily  to  Gaul.  He  had  accomplished  lit- 
tle during  his  three  weeks'  stay  in  Britain,  and  had  not  ad- 
vanced more  than  a  mile  from  the  shore. 

The  Second  Invasion.  During  the  winter  Caesar  gath  • 
ered  a  large  force  of  soldiers,  and  in  July  of  the  following 
year  came  sailing  toward  the  British  coast  with  eight  hun- 
dred ships  carrying  25,000  foot  soldiers  and  2,000  horsemen. 
When  the  Britons  near  the  coast  saw  this  great  fleet  approach- 
ing, they  fled  in  terror.  The  Romans  landed,  and  pursued 
the  enemy  to  a  fort  in  which  they  had  taken  refuge.  This 
was  a  woodland  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  earth  and  a  deep 
ditch.  Caesar  captured  the  fort  and  afterwards  fought  many 
battles  with  the  Britons,  but  did  not  do  them  any  serious 
injury. 

The  Britons  were  led  by  a  famous  chief,  Caswallon,  or 
"  Cassivelaunus  "  as  the  Romans  wrote  his  name.  Seeing  the 
superiority  of  the  Eoman  soldiers,  he  prudently  retreated 
when  the  battle  went  against  him.  This  chief  had  subdued 
many  of  the  neighboring  tribes,  who  now,  in  the  hope  of  re- 
gaining their  freedom,  joined  the  Eomans.  Five  of  these 
tribes  went  with  Caesar  to  attack  Caswallon's  town  north  of 
the  Thames.  This  they  captured  with  a  great  number  of 
cattle,  which  was  the  chief  wealth  of  the  Britons.  Caswallon 
now  surrendered  to  Caesar,  gave  him  a  large  number  of  hos- 


64  B.C.I 


THE   ROMANS   IX   BRITAIN 


17 


tages,  and  promised,  in  addition  to  paying  a  yearly  tribute,  not 
to  molest  the  tribes  who  had  made  friends  with  the  Romans. 

As  some  of  the  tribes  in  Gaul  had  revolted,  Caesar  soon  re- 
crossed  the  Channel,  thinking  that  he  had  sufficiently  fright- 
ened the  Britons  to  prevent  their  sending  any  more  help  to 
his  foes  in  Gaul. 

Caesar's  Account  of  the  Britons  shows  that  he  was  a 
careful  observer.  "  The  people  are  numerous/'  he  says,  "  be- 
yond all  counting,  and  their  buildings  very  numerous;  the 
number  of  their  cattle  is  great.  They  use  brass  or  iron 
rings,  of  a  fixed  weight,  for  money.  Tin  is  produced  in  the 
interior  regions,  and  iron  along  the  seacoast;  but  the  quantity 
of  it  is  small.  They  have  timber  of  every  description,  ex- 
cept the  beech  and  fir.  The  climate  is  more  temperate  than 
in  Gaul.  Most  of  the  inland  inhabitants  do  not  sow  grain, 
but  live  on  milk  and  flesh,  and  are  clad 
with  skins.  All  the  Britons  dye  them- 
selves with  woad,  which  makes  a  bluish 
color,  and  gives  them  a  terrible  appearance 
in  fight.  They  wear  their  hair  long  and 
shave  all  the  body  except  the  head  and 
upper  lip." 

But  what  astonished  Caesar  most  was 
their  manner  of  fighting,  and  their  cour- 
age and  daring  in  battle.     If  their  weap- 
ons and  discipline  had  been  equal  to  those 
of  the  Romans,  Ca3sar  might  not  have  been 
able  even  to  make  a  landing  upon  their  - 
shores.     Each  Briton  had  a  long  sword  :^J 
and  a  dagger,  made  of  copper  or  bronze,       ROMAN  SOLDIER. 
and  carried  a  small  round  shield  of  wickerwork  covered  with 
raw  hide.     But  the  bronze  weapons  were  not  very  sharp,  and 
would  bend  easily.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Roman,  carried  a 
short  two-edged  sword  of  tempered  Spanish  steel,  and  a  spear 


18  BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D.  [54  B.  C. 

about  six  feet  in  length,  tipped  with  a  long  steel  point.  For 
defensive  armor,  he  wore  a  steel  helmet,  breastplate,  and  armor 
for  the  legs,  and  carried  a  light  but  strong  shield  large  enough 
to  protect  the  whole  body.  The  Eoman  army  was  trained 
to  perfect  obedience  to  a  single  leader,  while  the  Britons  were 

led  by  separate  chiefs  who 
often  were  at  war  with  one 
another  and  were  not  will- 
ing to  unite  against  the 
common  enemy. 

The  War  Chariots  were 
the  most  effective  part   of 
the      Britons'      equipment. 
BBITISH  WAR  CHAEIOT.  These  were  broad,  low,  two- 

wheeled  carts,  which  would  carry  a  driver  and  several  war- 
riors. Long,  hooked  scythes  were  fastened  to  the  axles  or 
corners,  and  stuck  out  on  both  sides.  The  horses  were 
so  well  trained  that  they  could  be  driven  at  furious  speed  over 
the  roughest  ground  and  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  cutting 
down  everything  that  came  near  them.  The  warriors,  who 
wore  no  armor,  would  leap  down  and  fight  skillfully  on  foot, 
while  the  chariot  was  driven  off  to  one  side.  If  they  were 
getting  the  worst  of  the  fight,  they  would  run  swiftly  to  the 
chariot  and  drive  away  again,  while  the  Eoman  soldiers, 
burdened  with  heavy  armor,  could  not  follow. 

British  Life  and  Industries.  The  Briton  built  his  home 
by  setting  rough  logs  on  end  for  the  walls,  in  the  form  of 
either  a  circle  or  a  square.  On  these  walls  of  logs,  poles  were 
placed  for  rafters  and  bound  together  at  the  top.  A  roof  was 
made  of  interlacing  boughs  covered  with  rushes  or  turf.  The 
fire  was  built  upon  the  ground,  and  a  hole  in  the  roof  allowed 
the  smoke  to  escape.  The  family  slept  around  the  fire  on 
beds  of  straw  or  rushes  covered  with  skins. 

The  Britons  knew  little  of  navigation.     The  only  craft 


64  B.  C.] 


THE   BRITONS 


19 


they  used  to  any  extent  was  the  coracle,  made  by  fastening 
the  skins  of  animals  to  a  frame  of  wickerwork.  It  is  said 
that  a  few  larger  boats  of  oak  were  built,  with  skins  for 
sails. 

Like  the  American  Indians,  the  Britons  were  fond  of  orna- 
ments and  bright-colored  cloths.  They  obtained  these  things, 
as  well  as  their  weapons,  from  the  Gauls  in  exchange  foi 
cattle  and  grain. 


STONEHENGE  :  RUINS  OF  A  DRUID  TEMPLE. 

Religion;  the  Druids.  The  Britons  worshiped  many 
gods,  very  much  like  those  of  the  Eomans.  They  had  a  god 
of  war,  a  god  of  medicine,  and  gods  of  the  trees,  streams,  and 
sky.  Their  religious  teachers  were  called  "  Druids,"  from  a 
word  meaning  "  oak  tree."  The  oak  and  the  mistletoe  were 
sacred  to  them.  The  Druids  held  their  religious  services  in 
oak  groves,  and  taught  their  pupils  sitting  at  the  foot  of  some 
gnarled  old  oak.  They  thought  their  war  god  could  be 
pleased  only  by  human  sacrifices,  so  they  would  pen  up  a  large 
number  of  men  and  women  in  a  huge  wicker  cage  and  set  it 
on  fire.  They  taught  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  but  that  at 
death  it  passes  into  another  body. 

Csesar  tells  us  that,  the  Druids  were  doctors  and  astronomers 


20  BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D.  [54  B.  a 

as  well  as  teachers  and  priests.  They  knew  something  about 
the  use  of  plants  in  diseases,  and  had  "  much  to  say  about  the 
stars  and  their  motions,  about  the  size  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  about  nature  and  the  power  of  the  gods." 

There  is  a  famous  old  ruin  near  Salisbury,  in  southern 
England,  called  "  Stonehenge "  or  "  the  hanging  stones/' 
which  is  thought  to  be  the  remains  of  a  meeting  place  of  the 
Druids.  It  was  open  to  the  sky  and  composed  of  two  circles 
of  upright  stone  slabs  with  other  stones  laid  across  the  tops 
pf  them. 

When  Csesar  Returned  to  Borne,  there  was  great  rejoic- 
ing over  his  successful  wars  in  Gaul  and  Britain,  and  the 
Roman  Senate  ordered  a  grand  festival  of  twenty  days  in  his 
honor.  There  was  also  great  rejoicing  among  the  Britons  at 
his  departure,  and  you  may  be  sure  that  the  tribute  Chief 
Caswallon  promised  to  pay  was  never  sent.  After  Cassar  had 
made  himself  master  of  the  Koman  Eepublic,  he  was  mur- 
dered in  the  Senate  Hall  at  Eome,  and  a  great  civil  war  arose 
between  his  friends  and  the  friends  of  the  old  republic,  which 
ended  in  making  Eome  an  empire.  The  Eomans  were  so 
busy  with  these  and  other  matters  at  home,  that  it  was  nearly 
a  century  before  they  came  again  to  Britain. 

The  Third  Roman  Invasion  came  in  43  A.  D.,  under  a 
general  named  Plautius,  who  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  Clau- 
dius. Caradoc,  or  Caractacus,  great-grandson  of  Caswallon, 
was  then  the  ruling  British  chief.  After  nine  years  of  bloody 
fighting,  Caradoc  was  made  prisoner,  taken  to  Eome,  and  led 
in  chains  through  the  streets.  As  he  saw  the  splendid  build- 
ings and  the  wealth  of  the  capital  city  of  the  world,  he 
exclaimed :  "  Strange  that  they  who  have  such  splendid  pos- 
sessions, should  envy  us  our  poor  huts !  "  He  was  set  at  lib- 
erty by  Claudius,  but  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  his  native 
country. 

It  is  said  of  the  Eomans  that  wherever  they  conquered,  they 


61  A.  D.]  THE   ROMANS   IN  BRITAIN  21 

went  to  live,  and  so  they  now  began  to  establish  colonies  in 
Britain.  Colchester  and  London  were  settled  by  Roman  sol- 
diers, who  built  fine  houses  and  temples,  established  Eoman 
laws  and  government,  and  introduced  the  Latin  language  and 
the  worship  of  the  Roman  gods.  During  the  first  century 
A.  D.  the  Romans  built  nearly  fifty  walled  cities  in  different 
parts  of  the  country. 
Soldiers  were  kept  in 
them  ready  to  check  any 
attempt  of  the  Britons  to 
regain  their  freedom. 
You  will  find  on  the  map 
of  England  many  towns 
whose  names  -end  in 
"  cester,"  "  Chester,"  or 
"  coin,"  such  as  Glouces- 
ter, Winchester,  and  Lin-  ROMAN  MASONRY  AT  LINCOLN. 
coin.  At  every  such  place  the  Romans  once  had  a  settlement, 
for  these  endings  come  from  the  Latin  word  castra,  meaning  a 
military  camp,  and  colonia,  the  word  for  colony. 

Suetonius  was  a  Roman  general  sent  in  58  to  govern 
Britain.  He  found  that  the  Druids,  who  had  gathered  in 
their  sacred  groves  on  the  island  of  Anglesey,  were  encoura- 
ging the  young  Britons  to  rise  against  the  Romans  and  get 
back  their  freedom.  So  Suetonius  landed  on  the  island,  put 
many  to  the  sword,  and  burned  numbers  of  Druids  in  their 
own  altar. fires.  The  Romans  governed  the  people  harshly 
and  imposed  heavy  taxes,  in  order  to  get  money  to  build  fine 
houses,  baths,  and  temples.  But  the  poor  Britons  lived  in 
mud  hovels,  and  had  to  serve  in  the  army  and  do  all  the  hard 
work. 

Boadicea,  the  widow  of  a  British  chief,  was  robbed  of  the 
property  left  her  by  her  husband,  and  she  and  her  daughters 
were  shamefully  scourged  and  abused.  The  English  poet 

NlVKR ». 


22  BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D.  [61  A.  D. 

William  Cowper  has  described  Boadicea's  interview  with  a 
Druid: 

"  When  the  British  warrior-queen, 
Bleeding  from  the  Roman  rods, 
Sought  with  an  indignant  mien 
Counsel  of  her  country's  gods, 

*'  Sage,  beneath  a  spreading  oak, 
Sat  the  Druid,  hoary  chief, 
Every  burning  word  he  spoke 
Full  of  rage  and  full  of  grief. 

*' '  Rome  shall  perish, —  write  that  word 

In  the  blood  that  she  has  spilt ; 
Perish,  hopeless  and  abhorred, 
Deep  in  ruin  as  in  guilt. 

** '  Rome,  for  empire  far  renowned, 

Tramples  on  a  thousand  states ; 
Soon    her   pride    shall    kiss   the    ground  — 
Hark !  the  Gaul  is  at  her  gates.'  " 

Boadicea  roused  the  people  by  telling  the  story  of  her 
wrongs,  and,  gathering  an  army,  attacked  London  and  other 
Koman  colonies.  In  a  few  days  70,000  Romans  were  slain. 
None  were  spared,  but  men,  women,  and  children  alike  fell 
beneath  the  fury  of  the  Britons. 

Suetonius  had  hurried  back  from  his  massacre  of  the 
Druids  at  Anglesey,  but  was  forced  to  leave  London  to  its 
fate  in  order  to  save  his  army.  He  chose  his  battle  ground  on 
a  great  plain,  with  a  forest  in  the  rear,  having  10,000  men  in 
all.  There  he  was  attacked  by  the  Britons,  120,000  strong, 
led  by  Queen  Boadicea  in  her  chariot.  On  the  level  ground, 
the  discipline  and  superior  arms  of  the  Romans  gave  them 
the  advantage.  With  solid  ranks  they  charged  wedge-like 
into  the  multitude  before  them,  the  cavalry  and  light  troops 
spreading  out  in  the  rear  and  protecting  the  flanks.  The 
Britons  turned  and  fled  in.  confusion.  Countless  wagons  filled 
with  women,  who  had  come  to  witness  a  victory,  blocked 


410  A.  D.]  THE   ROMANS  IX  BRITAIN  23 

the  way,  and  80,000  Britons  were  slain.  Boadicea  poisoned 
herself.  The  Roman  conquest  was  assured. 

Results  of  Roman  Conquest.  The  revolt  of  the  Britons 
resulted  in  securing  better  treatment  from  the  Eoman  gov- 
ernors. Suetonius,  who  had  allowed  his  officers  to  plunder 
the  people,  was  at  once  recalled,  and  we  hear  no  more  of 
Roman  injustice.  The  task  of  the  Romans  now  was  to  secure 
the  land  against  the  marauders  on  the  borders,  especially  the 
Gaelic  tribes  called  Picts  and  Scots.  The  Picts  made  at- 
tacks from  Scotland,  and  the  Scots  from  Ireland  (map,  p.  24). 

To  keep  off  the  northern  invaders,  the  Roman  governor 
Agricola  built  a  chain  of  forts  connecting  the  Clyde  and  the 
Forth  in  Scotland.  The  Emperor  Hadrian  visited  Britain 
in  119  A.  D.  and,  fearing  that  the  Picts  would  break  through 
Agricola's  chain  of  forts,  built  a  wall  of  earth  between  the 
Solway  and  the  Tyne  as  a  second  line  of  defense.  This  was 
strengthened  later  by  a  wall  of  solid  masonry,  about  eight  feet 
wide  and  fifteen  feet  high,  built  just  north  of  the  earthen 
wall.  This  famous  stone  wall  was  73  miles  long.  Parts  of 
it  still  exist.  Under  the  Emperor  Antoninus  another  wall, 
of  earth,  was  thrown  up  on  the  line  of  Agricola's  forts. 

In  order  to  move  their  armies  rapidly  from  place  to  place, 
the  Romans  built  many  roads,  one  extending  the  whole  length 
of  Hadrian's  wall,  and  others  connecting  the  various  colonies 
and  military  camps.  During  the  third  century  of  Roman 
rule  the  eastern  shore  was  troubled  more  and  more  by  the 
attacks  of  the  Saxons,  who  came  over  sea  to  plunder.  To 
guard  against  their  attacks,  a  watch  tower  and  fort  were  built', 
at  every  convenient  landing,  and  placed  under  the  command  of 
a  special  officer  who  had  the  title  "  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore/' 

The  Romans  Leave  Britain.  During  the  rule  of  the 
Romans,  all  these  forts,  walls,  and  military  defenses  of  every 
sort  were  manned  with  soldiers.  But  the  Germanic  tribes, 
of  which  the  Saxons  were  one,  attacked  the  Roman  Empire 


24 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  449  A.  D. 


[410 


E    N    G    L 


CHIEF  ROADS  AND  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN. 

and  finally  overthrew  it.  In  trying  to  defend  Rome,  the 
Emperors  withdrew  their  troops  from  the  outlying  provinces. 
In  410,  the  last  of  the  Eomans  left  Britain,  and  never  after 
that  did  they  set  foot  on  her  soil. 


446]  THE   ROMANS   IN  BRITAIN  25 

During  the  Roman  rule,  Christianity  took  the  place  of 
pagan  worship  among  the  Britons.  It  was  first  brought  to  the 
island  probably  by  soldiers  and  merchants  who  had  been  con- 
verted in  Eome.  After  the  Emperor  Constantine  (306-337) 
became  a  Christian,  the  new  faith  was  spread  rapidly  as  the 
religion  of  the  Empire. 

While  the  Britons  learned  much  that  was  valuable  from 
the  Eomans,  they  lost  their  warlike  spirit  and  became  de- 
pendent upon  the  leadership  of  others.  And  now,  after  the 
departure  of  the  Eoman  garrisons,  when  their  enemies  began 
to  swarm  down  upon  them,  they  wrote  to  Aetius,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Eoman  army,  a  beseeching  letter  which  they 
called  "  The  Groans  of  the  Britons."  "  The  barbarians,"  they 
said,  "drive  us  into  the  sea;  the  sea  drives  us  back  to  the 
barbarians;  between  them,  we  are  exposed  to  two  sorts  of 
death;  we  are  either  slain  or  drowned."  But  no  help  could 
the  Eomans  send  them,  and  before  long  the  fierce  Saxons  and 
their  brother  tribes  ruled  Eoman  and  Briton  alike. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  Caesar  show  his  skill  as  a  general? 

2.  What  was  the  Roman  method  of  holding  a  conquered  country? 

3.  Compare  the  Roman  and  British  modes  of  fighting. 

4.  Compare  the  religion  of  the  Britons  with  that  of  other  heathen  na- 

tions.    What  objects  are  usually  worshiped  by  savage  races  ? 

5.  What  facts  show  the  state  of  civilization  among  the  Britons  in  the 

time  of  Caesar?     Contrast  this  with  the  Roman  civilization. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  ROMAN   RULE  IN   BRITAIN.     Henty,  Beric,   the  Briton;   Windle, 

Life  in  Early  Britain. 

2.  COMPARE  THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  EABLY  BRITONS  WITH  THAT 

OF  THE  AMERICAN  INDIANS.     Caesar,  Gallic  War,  Bk.  IV.,  Ch. 
30-37 ;  C.  W.  Colby,  Sources  of  English  History,  pp.  3-6. 

3.  BOADICEA.     Church,  Stories  from  English  History,  Ch.  V. ;  Rolfe, 

Talcs  from  English  History,  pp.  1-2. 

4.  THE  DRUIDS.     Church,   Early   Britain,  pp.   7-10,  48-49;   Harper's 

Stories  of  English  History,  pp.  3-6. 


II.    ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND,  449-1066. 
A.    THE  COMING  or  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS. 

Early  Home  and  Customs.  The  Britons  and  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Picts  and  Scots,  belonged  to  the  Celtic  race.  But 

the  Angles  and  Sax- 
ons, who  invaded  and 
conquered  the  land 
and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  England,  were 
of  a  different  stock. 
They  were  Low  Ger- 
mans; that  is,  they 
lived  in  the  low  parts 
of  Germany  bordering 
EARLY  HOMES  OF  THE  ENGLISH.  on  the  Xorth  and  Bal. 

tic  seas.  They  were  much  like  the  Dutch  people  of  to-day  in 
race  and  language. 

We  have  learned  that  Csesar  wrote  a  description  of  the 
Britons.  In  like  manner,  a  Roman  historian,  Tacitus,  made 
a  study  of  the  German  tribes,  which  is  the  best  account  we 
have  of  these  ancestors  of  the  English.  He  says  that  the  Ger- 
mans had  no  regular  cities,  but  that  each  one  settled  by  him- 
self as  "woodside,  plain,  or  fresh  spring  attracted  him."  It 
was  the  custom  of  the  chief  to  divide  the  land  each  year  among 
his  warriors,  lest  by  living  too  long  in  one  place  they  should 
become  less  hardy  and  active  for  war. 

Each  village,  composed  of  independent  farmers,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  belt  of  waste  land  or  forest.  On  the  inside 
of  this  belt  was  a  ditch  and  rude  fence  called  the  tun,  from 

26 


100  A.D.] 


THE   ANGLES   AND   SAXONS 


27 


which  comes  our  word  "  town."     This  served  as  a  fortification 
in  case  of  war. 

Within  the  village  were  three  classes  of  people.  The  largest 
was  the  ceorls,  or  churls,  described  as  the  "  free  "  men,  or  the 
"  weaponed "  men ;  for  no  free  man,  sa}rs  Tacitus,  "  ever 
transacts  business,  public  or  private,  unless  fully  armed."  An- 
other class  was  the  eorls,  or  earls,  who  were  of  noble  blood,  and 
were  held  in  great  reverence.  From  this  class,  chiefs  were 


A  SAXOX  HOME. 

chosen  in  time  of  war,  and  rulers  in  time  of  peace.  Besides 
these  two  classes  there  were  in  every  village  a  small  number 
of  thralls,  or  slaves,  who  could  be  bought  and  sold  at  the  mas- 
ter's pleasure.  They  were  persons  who  had  been  captured  in 
the  frequent  wars  of  those  days,  and  who  had  not  been  ran- 
somed. 

When  laws  were  to  be  made,  or  war  entered  upon,  all  the 
freemen  assembled  in  a  tungemot  or  town  meeting.      Says  Tac- 


28  THE  ANGLES  AND  SAXONS  [100  A.  D 

itus,  "  Each  man  takes  his  place  completely  armed.  Silence 
is  proclaimed  by  the  priests.  The  chief  of  the  community 
opens  the  debate;  the  rest  are  heard  in  their  turn.,  according 
to  age,  nobility  of  descent,  renown  in  war,  or  fame  for  elo- 
quence. If  anything  is  advanced  not  agreeable  to  the  people, 
they  reject  it  with  a  general  murmur.  If  any  proposition 
pleases  them,  they  nourish  their  spears,  for  this  is  their  high- 
est mark  of  applause,  to  praise  by  the  sound  of  their  arms." 

These  German  tribes  worshiped  heathen  gods,  as  taught 
by  their  priests  and  singers.  The  English  names  for  four  of 
the  days  of  the  week  are  derived  from  the  names  of  some  of 
their  gods.  Wednesday  is  the  day  of  Woden,  the  great  war- 
god,  from  whom  the  kings  and  chiefs  claimed  descent. 
Thursday  is  Thorns  day;  Friday  is  Freya's  day;  and  Tuesday 
is  named  for  Tiu,  the  god  of  death. 

War  was  the  chief  occupation  of  these  tribes.  It  was 
counted  disgraceful  to  get  anything  by  peaceful  industry  that 
could  be  obtained  by  war;  and  it  was  believed  that  the  warrior 
who  fell  with  his  face  to  the  foe  was  carried  at  once  by  the 
"  war-maidens  "  to  the  great  hall  of  Woden  to  enjoy  an  eter- 
nity of  fighting  and  feasting  in  the  company  of  heroes. 

Caesar  tells  of  a  German  army  which  had  conquered  part 
of  Gaul  and  which,  according  to  its  leader,  had  not  gone  under 
a  roof  for  fourteen  years.  Cassar  drove  this  army  back  across 
the  Rhine,  for  many  years  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman 
Empire ;  but  in  the  end  German  strength  and  valor  overcame 
even  the  Roman  arms  and  discipline. 

How  the  Angles  and  Saxons  came  to  Britain.  This  is  the 
story  told  by  the  Britons :  "  Vortigern,  King  of  Kent,  see- 
ing that  the  Picts  troubled  him  by  land  and  the  Saxons  by 
sea,  thought  to  himself,  'I  shall  do  well  if  I  can  set  these 
robbers,  the  one  against  the  other/  So  he  said  to  Hengist, 
their  chief,  e  Let  us  make  an  alliance  together ' ;  and  to  this 
Hengist  consented,  and  he  made  a  feast  to  which  he  called 


449  A.  D.J          COMING  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  29 

King  Vortigern.  Now  Hengist  had  a  daughter,  Kowena,  who 
was  exceeding  fair,  and  the  maiden  stood  at  the  board  and 
served  the  king  with  mead.  When  the  king  looked  upon  her, 
he  loved  her  and  he  said  to  Hengist,  for  his  reason  had  gone 
from  him,  '  Give  me  the  maid  to  wife  and  I  will  give  you  the 
kingdom  of  Kent/  To  this  Hengist  consented;  but  the 
nobles  of  the  land  would  not  have  the  stranger  to  rule  over 
them.  Therefore  they  put  down  Vortigern  from  his  place 
and  made  Vortimer,  his  son,  king  in  his  stead.  And  Vortimer 
fought  against  Hengist  and  the  Saxons  till  he  drove  them  out 
of  the  land.  Then  for  five  years  Hengist  wandered  over  the 
sea  in  his  ships.  Vortimer  died,  and  again  Vortigern  was 
made  king.  Then  said  Hengist  to  him,  (  Give  me  the  king- 
dom according  to  your  promise.'  Vortigern  answered  him, 
'  Let  me  ask  counsel  of  my  nobles.'  So  the  nobles  assembled 
themselves,  three  hundred  in  all,  and  for  every  British  noble 
there  was  also  a  Saxon  chief.  And  as  they  sat  together, 
Hengist  cried  aloud,  ( Draw  your  daggers ! '  As  he  spoke, 
each  Saxon  smote  the  Briton  that  sat  next  to  him  and  slew 
him.  So  the  three  hundred  fell  in  one  day,  all  save  King 
Vortigern;  for  him  they  spared  by  command  of  Hengist. 
And  after  this,  the  strangers  held  the  land  without  further 
question." 

Whether  or  not  the  strangers  gained  their  first  foothold 
through  treachery,  we  do  not  know,  but  it  is  certain  that  they 
beat  the  Britons  in  many  a  fair  fight  afterward.  It  is  also  cer- 
tain that  the  conquerors  of  Kent  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Jutes, 
who  were  closely  related  to  the  Saxons.  According  to  Saxon 
accounts,  Vortigern  gave  some  land  to  the  Jute  chiefs  Hengist 
and  Horsa,  in  the  year  449,  in  return  for  aid  against  the 
Picts.  The  Jutes  soon  gained  possession  of  all  Kent;  and 
the  Angles  and  Saxons,  hearing  of  this,  were  not  long  in 
conquering  othe*  parts  of  Britain. 

A  band  of  Saxons  "  beset  Anderida  and  slew  all  that  were 


Longitude  4  West  from  Greenwich         0 


550]  COMING  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  31 

therein,  nor  was  there  afterward  one  Briton  left"  (491)  ;  and 
about  this  place  grew  up  the  kingdom  of  Sussex  (land  of  the 
South  Saxons). 

The  founder  of  Wessex  (West  Saxon  land)  was  Cerdic,  who 
came  first  in  495  with  five  ships,  and  fought  the  Britons  on  the 
southern  coast.  Six  years  later,  he  came  again  and  slew 
five  thousand  Britons.  The  West  Saxons  continued  to  push 
their  conquests  into  the  interior,  until  they  were  met  at 
Badon  Hill,  near  Bath,  by  a  mighty  king,  named  "Arthur," 
who  ruled  in  Wales.  On  the  second  day  of  the  battle,  Arthur 
and  his  knights  broke  through  the  lines  of  the  enemy  and 
saved  western  Britain  for  a  time. 

In  the  stories  handed  down  by  the  Welsh  bards,  or  singers, 
Arthur  is  celebrated  as  a  king  who  united  the  warring  chiefs 
of  the  Britons  against  the  heathen  invaders. 

"  And  still  from  time  to  time  the  heathen  host 
Swarmed  over  seas  and  harried  what  was  left. 
And  so  there  grew  great  tracts  of  wilderness, 
Wherein  the  beast  was  ever  more  and  more, 
But  man  was  less  and  less,  till  Arthur  came."1 

According  to  later  stories,  Arthur  made  his  residence  at  Caer- 
leon  in  Wales,  where  he  lived  in  splendid  state,  gathering 
about  him  many  brave  knights  and  beautiful  ladies.  Twelve 
of  the  noblest  and  bravest  of  these  knights  sat  with  the  king 
about  the  "  Eound  Table."  These  "  Knights  of  the  Eound 
Table  "  were  wont  to  go  out  in  search  of  adventures,  to  pro- 
tect women,  chastise  oppressors,  chain  up  wicked  giants  and 
dwarfs,  and  drive  back  the  heathen.  And  thus  Arthur,  hav- 
ing subdued  the  British  chiefs, 

"  Drew  all  their  petty  princedoms  under  him, 
Their  king  and  head,  and  made  a  realm  and  reigned." 

But  Arthur  died,  and  his  brave  knights  also  passed  away. 
The  heathen  Saxons  took  up  arms  again,  and  pressed  the 

'See  Tennyson's  poem,  "  The  Coming  of  Arthur." 


32  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [550 

Britons  further  back  into  the  highlands  on  the  north  and 
west,  where  their  descendants  still  tell  the  story  of  their  early 
hero  king. 

Meanwhile  other  Saxons  had  established  themselves  north 
of  the  Thames ;  they  were  called  East  Saxons  and  their  king- 
dom Essex.  About  this  time  some  of  them  took  the  strong 
city  of  London,  and  their  land  was  called  Middlesex. 

During  the  Saxon  conquests,  the  Angles  were  pouring  in 
along  the  eastern  coast,  and  finally  established  themselves  in 
three  leading  kingdoms, —  East  Anglia,  Mercia,  and  Xor- 
thumbria.  About  a  century  after  the  first  invasion,  therefore, 
we  find  seven  or  more  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  established  in 
Britain. 

As  to  the  Britons,  they  were  finally  driven  into  Cornwall, 
Wales,  and  the  mountains  in  the  north.  Large  number? 
of  them  fell  in  battle;  probably  some  of  them  became  the 
slaves  of  the  invaders.  We  know  little  about  their  fate.  The 
Angles  and  Saxons  came  upon  them  like  a  tidal  wave  and 
swept  them  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  In  caves  among  the 
Yorkshire  moorlands  have  been  found  coins,  costly  orna- 
ments, and  elaborate  sword  hilts,  such  things  as  might  be 
caught  up  hastily  by  people  fleeing  for  their  lives.  Charred 
bones  and  other  signs  of  cooking  seem  to  show  that  these 
caves  were  for  some  time  the  homes  of  the  fugitives.  The 
very  name  of  Briton  disappeared,  and  the  country  was  called 
"Angle-land,"  or  England. 

Wars  among  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kingdoms  began  as  soon 
as  these  were  established,  and  continued  until  the  time  of 
Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  who  reigned  from  802  to  839.  He 
united  the  several  kingdoms  and  gave  them  the  name  England. 
Before  Egbert's  time,  it  was  customary  to  give  the  title  of 
"  Bretwalda,"  meaning  "  wide  ruler,"  or  "  ruler  of  Britain," 
to  the  king  who  was  most  powerful. 

There  were  seven  or  eight  of  these  Bretwaldas  before  the 


597]  CONVERSION  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  33 

time  of  Egbert.  Several  of  them  are  of  especial  interest,  be- 
muse they  were  converted  to  Christianity  and  helped  to  spread 
the  Christian  faith  among  their  people. 

The  Venerable  Bede,  a  Christian  priest  of  Northumbria, 
in  the  eighth  century  wrote  a  history  of  the  church  in  Brit- 
ain. He  has  left  us  a  good  account  of  the  first  missionaries,  of 
their  converts,  and  the  spread  of  the  faith  through  the  several 
kingdoms.  The  Britons  had  been  Christians,  but  in  England 
their  religion  had  perished  with  them.  It  was  to  the  invaders, 
indeed,  one  reason  for  killing  them.  When  the  first  mis- 
sionaries came,  in  597,  the  country  was  completely  heathen. 
The  British  Christians  in  the  west  of  the  island  for  a  long 
time  made  no  attempt  to  convert  the  English,  regarding  them 
as  hateful  to  both  God  and  man. 

The  First  Missionaries  came  from  Eome.  Bede  tells  us 
that  a  noble  Eoman  priest,  named  Gregory,  while  walking  one 
day  through  the  streets  of  Rome,  saw  some 
beautiful,  fair-haired  children  exposed  for 
sale  by  a  slave  dealer.  He  stopped  and  in- 
quired :  "  Who  are  these  children  ?  Are 
they  Christians  or  pagans  ?  " 

He  was  told  that  they  were  pagans  and 
Angles.        • 

"  They  are  well-named/'  said  Gregory, 
"  for  they  have  angelic  faces  and  should 
be  made  co-heirs  with  the  angels  in  heaven. 
Alas !  that  the  author  of  darkness  should ANGLE  SLAVE  BOYS- 
possess  men  with  such  bright  faces.  From  what  province  do 
they  come  ?  " 

"  They  are  from  Deira." 

"  Truly/7  said  Gregory,  "  they  shall  be  de  tra,1  saved  from 
wrath,  and  called  to  the  mercy  of  Christ.  And  who  is  the 
king  of  that  land  ?  " 

1Latin  for  "  from  wrath.'* 


34  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [597 

"  His  name  is  Ella." 

"Alleluias  shall  be  sung  in  those  parts/7  said  Gregory. 

Years  afterwards  when  the  priest  Gregory  became  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great,  he  remembered  the  Angles,  and  sent  to 
England  a  monk,  named  Augustine,  with  a  company  of  mis- 
sionaries, aboiit  forty  in  all.  The  missionaries  were  of  the 
order  of  Saint  Benedict,  whose  system  of  monastic  life,  estab- 
lished in  Italy  about  seventy  years  before,  had  spread  to  most  of 
the  monasteries  of  Western  Europe.  During  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era,  when  the  world  was  full  of  wick- 
edness and  heathen  customs  were  yet  common,  men  and 
women  who  wished  to  lead  pure  and  religious  lives  withdrew 
into  lonely  places  and  built  convents,  or  monasteries,  where 
they  spent  their  time  in  prayer  and  fasting  to  fit  the  soul  for 
heaven.  The  men  were  called  "  monks "  and  the  women 
"nuns/'  Benedict's  system  taught  the  duty  of  work  as  well 
as  of  prayer,  and  Augustine  and  his  monks  came  to  preach  and 
to  work  for  the  conversion  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  heathen. 

The  missionaries  landed  in  Kent  in  the  spring  of  597. 
Ethelbert,  the  king  of  that  country,  was  then  Bretwalda.  His 
wife  Bertha,  a  Christian,  had  already  established  a  priest  in  an 
old  Koman  church  at  Canterbury.  The  king  received  the 
strangers  in  an  open  field,  under  an  oak  tree,  «where  their 
magic  arts,  if  they  had  any,  his  pagan  priests  told  him,  would 
lose  their  influence.  Augustine  and  his  monks  came  into  the 
king's  presence  in  solemn  procession,  bearing  a  large  cross  of 
silver  and  a  figure  of  the  Christ  wrought  in  gold  and  colors, 
while  the  air  resounded  with  "Alleluias."  An  interpreter 
explained  to  Ethelbert  the  message  they  brought.  The  king 
replied  that  while  he  could  not  abandon  the  gods  of  his 
fathers,  the  missionaries  might  preach  without  hindrance,  and 
they  should  be  supported  at  his  expense.  The  kindness  and 
piety  of  the  Christiana  attracted  the  people  from  the  first,  and 
before  the  end  of  the  year  the  king  himself  was  baptized. 


700]  CONVERSION  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  35 

Spread  of  Christianity.  During  the  next  twenty-five 
years,  the  kingdom  of  Kent  yielded  the  first  place  to  Northum- 
bria,  which,  under  two  warlike  kings,  Ethelfrid  and  Edwin, 
rose  to  great  power.  The  story  of  Edwin's  life  and  conver- 
sion is  full  of  interest.  An  attempt  had  been  made  on  the  life 
of  the  king,  and,  since  he  had  been  told  that  he  should  offer 
thanks  to  God,  he  asked  the  advice  of  his  council  concerning 
the  new  religion. 

Coifi,  the  high  priest  of  Woden,  spoke:  "No  one  has 
served  our  gods  more  faithfully  than  I,  yet  no  one  has  been 
more  unfortunate.  I  am  weary  of  deities  who  are  so  ungrate- 
ful, and  I  would  willingly  try  a  new  religion." 

A  noble  then  spoke :  "  Often,  0  King,  in  the  depth  of 
winter  while  you  are  feasting  with  your  nobles,  and  the  great 
fire  is  blazing  in  the  hall,  you  have  seen  a  bird,  pelted  by  the 
storm,  enter  at  one  door  and  escape  by  the  other ;  and  you  have 
not  known  whence  it  came,  or  whither  it  went.  Such  is  the 
life  of  man.  He  walks  the  earth  for  a  few  years,  but  what 
precedes  his  birth  and  what  comes  after  his  death,  we  cannot 
tell.  If  this  new  religion  knows  anything  of  these  secrets,  it 
must  be  worth  our  attention." 

The  Bishop  Paulinus,  who  was  present  as  the  spiritual  ad- 
viser of  the  queen,  then  explained  the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
Coifi  and  Edwin  expressed  their  belief;  and  the  religion  of 
Christ  became  the  faith  of  Northumbria. 

East  Anglia,  Wessex,  and  Sussex  embraced  Christianity. 
Both  Kent  and  Xorthumbria  returned  to  heathenism  after  the 
deaths  of  Ethelbert  and  Edwin.  But  in  the  end  Christianity 
triumphed,  and  within  a  century  after  Augustine  met  the  King 
of  Kent  under  the  sacred  oak,  the  work  of  Christianizing  Eng- 
land was  complete. 

Ireland  had  become  Christian  long  before  this,  through 
the  labors  begun  by  Saint  Patrick.  Patrick  was  born  in  the 
fourth  century,  some  years  before  the  Eomans  left  Brit- 


36  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [450 

ain.  He  was  carried  off  to  Ireland  by  pirates  and  forced  to 
serve  as  a  shepherd.  After  a  time  he  escaped.  But  he  be- 
lieved that  he  heard  the  voice  of  God  in  a  vision  calling  him 
to  return  to  Ireland  and  preach  to  the  people  among  whom  he 
had  worked  as  a  slave.  He  traveled  through  the  country, 
gathering  them  about  him  in  the  open  fields,  and  taught 
them  with  success.  He  founded  many  churches  and  monas- 
teries, where  young  men  were  taught  who  went  out  to  Scotland  / 
and  Gaul  and  carried  on  the  missionary  work.  Patrick  won 
the  love  of  the  Irish  and  he  became,  and  has  ever  remained, 
the  patron  saint  of  Ireland. 

Saint  Columba,  one  of  the  Irish  missionaries,  built  a  fa- 
mous monastery  on  the  island  of  lona,  off  the  Scottish  coast, 
where  missionaries  were  trained  for  the  work  of  converting 
Anglo-Saxons.  These  missionaries  soon  came  into  conflict 
with  those  sent  from  Eome,  owing  to  the  different  usages  as  to 
the  time  for  keeping  Easter.  So  violent  did  the  strife  become 
in  Northumbria,  that  King  Oswy  called  a  council  at  Whitby 
(664  A.  D.)  to  decide  which  of  the  two  practices  should  be 
adopted.  The  priests  of  both  sides  offered  their  arguments. 

"You  admit,"  said  the  king  to  an  Irish  priest,  "that 
Christ  gave  to  Peter  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Has 
he  given  such  power  to  Columba  ?  " 

The  priest  could  only  answer,  "  No." 

"  Then  will  I  rather  obey  the  porter  of  heaven,"  said  Oswy, 
"lest  when  I  reach  the  gates  he  who  has  the  keys  turn  his 
back  on  me,  and  there  be  none  to  open/'  The  Irish  priests 
could  make  no  answer  to  this  argument,  and  they  left  North- 
umbria,  which,  with  the  rest  of  England,  adopted  the  discipline 
of  the  Roman  missionaries. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Compare  an  old  Saxon  town  with  a  town  in  New  England  at  the 
present  time.     In  what  ways  was  each  self-governing? 


802]  CONVERSION  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  37 

2.  Why   would    the   Britons   and    Saxons   be   likely    to   give   different 

accounts  of  the  conquest  of  Britain? 
,  How  do  you  account  for  the  conquest  of  the  civilized  Britons  by 

the  savage  Angles  and  Saxons? 
•af.  How  did  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  differ  from  the  Roman  conquest? 

Why? 

5.  Where  are  the  descendants  of  the  Britons  found  to-day?     Why? 
!i.  What  is  the  importance  of  Arthur?     Where  did  the  Arthur  stories 

come  from? 
7.  Compare  the  Christianizing  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  with  that  of  the 

Irish  and  that  of  the  Britons. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  KING   ARTHUR.     Lanier,   The  Boy's   King  Arthur;   Greene,   King 

Arthur  and  His  Court, 

2.  ST.   PATRICK.     Lawless,   Story  of  Ireland,   Ch.   V. ;   DeVere,   Leg- 

ends of  St.  Patrick. 

3.  THE  EARLY  GERMANS.     Kendall,  Source  Book  of  English  History, 

pp.   4-12. 

4.  ST.  AUGUSTINE.     Freeman,  Old-English  History,  Ch.  VI. 

B.     ALFRED  AND  THE  DANES. 

Under  the   Rule  of  Egbert,1   England  prospered.     His 
kingdom  extended  from  the  river  Tamar  to  the   Firth  of 

1  THE  SAXON  KINGS  OF  ENGLAND 
EGBERT   (802-839) 

ETHELWULF    (839-858) 
! 

ETHELBALD  ETHELBERT  ETHELRED  ALFRED  the  Great 

(858-860)  (860-866)  (866-871)  |    (871-901) 

EDWARD  the  Elder 
|   (901-925) 

ATHELSTAN     (925-940)          EDMUND     (940-946)  EDRED    (946-955) 


EDWY  (955-959)    EDGAR  the  Peaceful    (959-975) 


EDWARD  the  Martyr     ETHELRED   II.    the   Unready,   m.    Emma    of  Normandy 
(975-979)  (979-1016) 


Edmund  Ironside  EDWARD  the  Confessor 

(1042-1066) 


38 


ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND 


[802 


Forth,  and  from  the  Severn  to  the  North  Sea.  The  people 
were  content  to  acknowledge  one  king,  and  devoted  themselves 

to  agriculture  and 
herding.  Manufactur- 
ing of  a  simple  kind 
began,  and  churches 
and  convents  were 
built.  But  a  new  en- 
emy had  now  ap- 
peared. In  787,  we 
are  told,  in  the  "An- 
glo-Saxon Chronicle," 
written  by  Saxon 
monks,  "  three  ship- 
loads of  Danes  landed 
on  the  coast  and  slew 
the  sheriff  of  the  place 
who  went  to  inquire 
who  they  were.  These 
were  the  first  ships  of 
EGBERT'S  KINGDOM.  D  a  n  i  S  h-m  e  n  who 

sought  the  English  nation."  After  this,  there  came  more  and 
more.  The  Danes  sailed  in  li^ht,  swift  vessels,  which  could 
ascend  the  rivers.  They  lived  in  the  peninsulas  between  the 
Baltic  and  North  seas,  and,  like  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  were 
of  the  Germanic  race. 

In  the  churches  and  monasteries  of  those  times  much 
wealth  was  stored.  The  people  gave  many  rich  presents  to 
them;  the  priests  had  chalices  and  crosses  of  silver  and 
gold.  Bibles  made  by  the  monks  were  splendidly  bound  and 
set  with  jewels.  The  heathen  Danes  hated  the  English  for 
giving  up  the  old  gods  Thor  and  Woden,  and  they  killed  the 
monks  like  sheep  and  robbed  and  burned  the  churches.  So 
great  was  the  fear  of  these  robbers  that  in  many  places  this 


871]  EGBERT,  ALFRED  39 

prayer  was  added  to  the  church  litany :  "  From  the  fury  of 
the  Northmen,  Good  Lord,  deliver  us ! " 

Even  Egbert  was  unable  to  drive  out  these  new  invaders. 
In  the  year  832  he  fought  a  great  battle  with  thirty-five  of 
these  pirate  vessels  and 
was  defeated.  During  the 
reigns  of  Egbert's  son  and 
grandsons,  the  Danes 
came  again  and  again; 
finally  they  settled  in  the 
land,  and  most  of  the 
eastern  coast  came  under 
their  rule. 

Alfred,    the    youngest 
and  noblest  of  the  grand-  DANISH  SHIP. 

sons  of  Egbert,  came  to  the  throne  of  Wessex  in  871.  He  is 
the  only  King  of  England  who  has  been  honored  with  the  title 
of  "  the  Great."  He  was  great  in  war,  but  when  peace  came, 
he  showed  himself  greater  still.  A  Welsh  friend  of  Alfred  has 
left  us  a  book  entitled  "Annals  of  the  Deeds  of  Alfred  the 
Great."  He  tells  us  that  Alfred  from  his  boyhood  was 
noted  for  his  nobility  of  character  and  his  love  of  wisdom. 
In  those  rough  times  it  was  not  thought  necessary  that  a  king 
should  know  how  to  read,  but  he  must  be  a  stout  fighter  and 
skillful  in  defending  his  country.  One  day  Alfred's  mother 
was  showing  her  sons  an  Anglo-Saxon  poem,  beautifully  writ- 
ten on  parchment  with  illuminated  letters,  and  said,  "  Who- 
ever of  you  shall  first  learn  to  read  this  book,  shall  have  it  to 
keep  for  himself."  The  parchment  was  so  beautiful  and 
valuable  that  Alfred  thought  at  first  his  mother  was  joking; 
but  when  he  understood  that  she  was  in  earnest,  he  went  to 
his  teacher,  and  in  a  short  time  had  learned  to  read  and  recite 
the  poem.  From  that  moment  he  never  ceased  to  devote  all 
his  spare  time  to  improving  his  mind.  In  a  book  of  proverbs 

NlVER * 


40  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [871 

said  to  have  been  written  for  the  instruction  of  Alfred's  sons, 
this  verse  is  found: 

"  Thus  quoth  Alfred,  our  delight : 
4  He   may   be   no   king   of   right 
Under  Christ  who  is  not  filled 
"With  book-lore,   in  law   well-skilled; 
Letters  he  must  understand, 
And   know   his  right   to   hold   his   land.' " 

Alfred  and  the  Danes.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  Alfred  had  a  terrible  war  on  his 
hands.  The  year  before  he  was  made  king,  he  had  fought  the 
Danes  with  his  brother,  King  Ethelred.  In  the  first  battle 
both  armies  fought  long  and  bravely,  and  the  Danes  were  de- 
feated with  heavy  loss ;  but  a  few  days  later  the  Danes  fought 
again  and  were  victorious.  The  Anglo-Saxons  had  lost  some 
of  their  warlike  spirit  in  becoming  farmers  and  tradesmen. 
They  were  therefore  no  match  for  the  fierce  Danes,  who  made 
war  their  main  business.  Alfred  saw  that  he  must  build  a 
navy  and  fight  the  enemy  on  the  sea  as  well  as  on  the  land. 
He  built  several  ships,  and  managed  to  capture  one  Danish 
vessel.  This  success  so  encouraged  the  people  that  during  tbe 
next  five  years  they  built  up  a  good-sized  navy,  with  higher 
and  stronger  ships  than  even  the  Danes  had. 

In  the  mean  time  things  were  going  badly  on  land.  In 
877,  a  terrible  Danish  army  landed  on  the  coast  of  Wessex. 
They  marched  through  the  country  and  carried  everything 
before  them.  Their  path  was  marked  by  the  smoking  ruins 
of  homes  and  villages  and  the  mutilated  remains  of  the  slain. 
Alfred  was  driven  from  his  capital  and  forced  to  hide  with 
a  few  followers  in  the  swamps  and  woods.  You  have  read  in 
the  story  books  how  the  cowherd's  wife,  in  whose  hut  he  had 
taken  refuge,  left  him  to  tend  some  cakes  baking  on  the 
hearth.  But  the  king,  who  was  mending  his  weapons  and 
thinking  of  the  Danes,  left  the  cakes  to  burn.  The  woman, 


678] 


ALFRED   AND   THE   DANES 


41 


on  returning,  took  them  hastily  away  and  said  to  the  king 
angrily,  "Why  dost  not  tarry  to  turn  the  cakes  which  thou 
seest  burning,  seeing  how  glad  thou  art  to  eat  them  when  they 
are  baked  ?  " 

Alfred  gradually  drew  his  men  about  him  again,  until  they 
were  strong  enough  to  take  the  field.  He  met  the  Northmen 
again  at  Eddington  (pp.  42,  7)  and  in  a  desperate  battle 
defeated  them.  The  fort  in  which  they  took  refuge  was  be- 


ALFRED  AND  THE  CAKES. 

sieged,  and  the  whole  army  starved  into  surrender.  The 
Danish  fleet  also,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  ships,  had  been 
overtaken  by  a  storm  which  wrecked  half  of  them,  and  the 
remainder  were  captured  by  Alfred's  navy  off  the  coast  of 
Hampshire. 

Wedmore.     Alfred  was  merciful  to  the  conquered  Danes. 
He  made  peace  with  Guthrum,  the  Danish  chief,  at  Wedmore, 


ENGLAND 

in  878 
After  the  Treaty  of  Wedmore 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


S78]  ALFRED  AND  THE  DANES  43 

in  878,  on  condition  that  he  should  become  a  Christian. 
Guthrum  and  thirty  of  his  followers  were  baptized,  and  the 
land  was  divided  between  the  Danes  and  the  Saxons  as  you  see 
on  the  map.  You  will  see  in  the  Danish  section  many  names 
ending  in  "by,"  as  Derby,  Whitby,  and  Grimsby.  This 
shows  that  the  Danes  were  the  founders,  for  the  ending  by 
in  Danish  means  town  or  village.  The  ending  "  ton  "  shows 
an  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  and  you  will  find  names  having  this 
ending  in  central  and  southern  England. 

After  the  Peace  of  Wedmore  the  land  had  rest  for  a  time ; 
but  then  came  another  Danish  army  led  by  Hasting,  a  chief 
who  had  been  harrying  France  as  Guthrum  had  been  harrying 
England.  For  three  years  war  was  again  waged,  but  it 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Danes.  Those  who  did  not  care 
for  peaceful  homes  in  England,  returned  to  their  own  land. 

"Thanks  be  to  God,"  wrote  the  monks,  in  the  Chronicle, 
"  the  foreign  army  has  not  broken  down  the  English  nation." 

As  soon  as  peace  came,  Alfred  set  to  work  to  provide  against 
future  invasions.  He  organized  a  regular  army  by  dividing 
the  fighting  men  of  England  into  two  classes,  and  arranged 
the  term  of  service  so  that  while  half  of  them  were  at  home 
attending  to  their  own  affairs,  the  other  half  were  drilling 
and  fitting  themselves  to  defend  their  country  in  case  of  need. 
He  also  increased  the  navy  so  that  he  could  station  vessels 
in  every  bay  and  inlet  against  any  attempt  of  the  enemy 
to  land.  He  built  strong  forts  along  the  coast  and  fifty  stone 
castles  in  the  interior,  which  could  be  used  as  strongholds  in 
case  the  enemy  should  enter  the  country. 

Alfred's  Laws  and  Judges.  When  Alfred  felt  secure  from 
invasion,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  af- 
fairs within  his  kingdom.  He  caused  the  good  laws  of  his 
ancestors  and  of  the  neighboring  kingdoms  of  Mercia  and 
Kent  to  be  collected.  He  compelled  his  judges  to  study  these 
laws  and  to  give  just  decisions  on  cases  brought  before  them. 


44  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [900 

Wicked  judges  were  condemned  to  suffer  punishments  such  as 
they  had  unjustly  inflicted  on  others.  And  there  must  have 
been  many  wicked  judges  if  we  are  to  believe  one  writer  who 
tells  us  that  Alfred  had  forty-four  executed  in  one  year  for 
unlawful  judgments. 

The  Law  Courts.  The  smallest  unit  in  Anglo-Saxon 
government  was  the  township,  or  vill.  This  consisted  of  land 
which  had  been  apportioned  by  an  earl  or  a  king  to  one  of  his 
followers,  who  dwelt  upon  it  with  his  men.  The  lord  of  the 
township  was  called  a  thane.  He  divided  the  land  among  his 
men,  who  were  obliged,  in  return,  to  render  a  certain  amount 
of  service,  but  who  were  in  other  respects  free.  Each  town- 
ship elected  a  reeve  and  four  assistants,  to  manage  the  town 
affairs  and  with  the  thane  to  hold  the  Town  Court. 

The  next  higher  court  was  known  as  the  Hundred  Court. 
The  hundred  was  a  subdivision  of  a  shire,  or  county,  and  may 
originally  have  embraced  a  hundred  families  or  have  furnished 
a  hundred  fighting  men.  The  hundred  court  was  presided 
over  by  a  bishop  and  an  earl ;  it  was  held  monthly,  and  each 
township  was  represented  in  it  by  the  reeve  and  his  assistants. 

Higher  than  the  hundred  was  the  County  Court,  held 
twice  a  year  and  presided  over  by  the  shire-reeve,  or  sheriff, 
together  with  the  earls  and  bishops  living  within  the  county. 

Highest  of  all  was  the  supreme  court  of  the  kingdom,  the 
Witenagemote,  or  assembly  of  wise  men  (Witari) ;  that  is,  the 
bishops,  earls,  and  thanes  of  the  kingdom.  It  met  at  the  sum- 
mons of  the  king  and  was  presided  over  by  him.  On  the 
death  of  the  king,  the  Witan  met  and  chose  his  successor. 

These  courts  were  also  legislatures,  each  one  having  the 
power  to  make  laws  for  the  government  of  the  people  under 
its  jurisdiction.  In  early  times  all  matters  concerning  law 
and  judgment  might  be  decided  by  a  vote  of  all  the  freemen 
present.  But  later,  criminal  cases  were  decided  almost  en- 
tirely by  the  method  of  compurgation  and  the  ordeal.  The 


900]  ALFRED  45 

people  of  each  town  were  responsible  for  the  good  conduct  of 
its  citizens.  Any  citizen  could  bring  an  accusation  before  the 
court,  though  later  the  duty  of  accusing  persons  suspected  of 
crime  was  assigned  to  twelve  specially  selected  men  whom 
we  call  jurors.  If  the  accused  person  swore  to  his  own  inno- 
cence, and  could  get  a  certain  number  of  his  fellow-townsmen 
to  swear  that  they  believed  him,  he  was  acquitted.  If  he 
could  not  obtain  the  required  number  of  compurgators,  or 
"  purgers,"  so  called  because  they  purged  him  of  his  crime,  he 
had  to  admit  his  guilt  or  submit  to  the  judgment  of  God,  the 
ordeal.  This  required  him  to  plunge  his  hand  into  boiling 
water,  or  to  carry  a  red-hot  iron  of  a  certain  weight  a  distance 
fixed  by  law.  If,  after  three  days,  no  mark  was  found  on 
him,  he  was  considered  innocent.  If  found  guilty,  he  had  to 
pay  the  fine  fixed  by  law  for  his  offense.  As  a  rule  every  man 
was  a  member  of  some  "guild,"  or  society,  which  furnished 
his  compurgators  or  paid  his  fine. 

Alfred's  Services  to  Education.  Alfred  tells  us  that 
when  he  became  king  he  knew  no  one  south  of  the  Thames 
who  could  read  Latin,  the  language  of  the  church,  in  which 
were  written  the  books  he  wished  his  people  to  read.  So 
he  set  to  work  to  translate  the  Latin  books.  Bede's  his- 
tory of  the  church,  a  history  of  the  world  by  the  Spanish 
priest  Orosius,  and  a  book  on  the  "Duties  of  a  Christian 
Minister  "  by  Gregory  the  Great,  were  some  of  these.  He  es- 
tablished schools  in  the  monasteries,  and  one  in  his  own 
palace.  He  brought  in  teachers  from  various  parts  of  Eng- 
land and  from  other  countries  in  order  that  the  young  nobles 
and  other  youth  of  his  land  might  be  fitted  to  perform  the 
duties  of  men.  He  also  rebuilt  the  churches  and  convents 
that  the  Danes  had  destroyed,  and  had  many  monks  emplo}7ed 
in  copying  manuscripts,  for  there  were  no  printed  books  at 
that  time,  and  in  keeping  the  records  of  his  country.  He 
caused  the  famous  book,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  to  be 


46  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [900 

compiled  and  recorded;  this  is  our  main  source  of  informa- 
tion concerning  the  events  in  early  English'  history.  He 
was  interested  too  in  architecture,  in  art,  in  the  working  of 
metals,  and  even  in  the  making  and  enameling  of  jewels. 

We  are  told  that  the  way  Alfred  managed  to  do  so  much 
was  by  dividing  his  time  and  devoting  a  certain  part  of  it 
each  day  to  whatever  work  he  had  in  hand.  There  were  no 
clocks  in  his  time,  so  he  had  six  candles  made  of  such  size 
that  they  would  burn  out  in  twenty-four  hours.  To  prevent 
them  from  being  affected  by  the  draughts  that  came  from  the 
doors  and  the  cracks  in  the  walls  of  his  palace,  he  had  the 
candles  set  in  boxes  of  wood  or  horn,  thus  making  the  first 
lanterns  in  England. 

This  great  king,  who  was  one  of  the  best  men  that  ever 
lived,  died  in  901,  leaving  worthy  children  and  grandchildren 
to  carry  on  his  work. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Why  were  the  Danes  superior  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  war? 

2.  What  was  the  purpose  of  Alfred's  navy?     His  army?     His  castles? 

3.  What  do  you  think  best  shows  Alfred's  greatness  as  a  king? 

4.  Why  was  the  system  of  trial  by  compurgation  and  ordeal  defective? 

5.  How   did   the   people   take   part   in   government   in   Alfred's   time? 

Were  they  represented  in  the  Witan?     How? 

6.  What    do    names    teach    us    of    the    history    of   a    country?     Give 

examples. 

7.  Compare  the  local  government  in  Alfred's  time  with  that  in  New 

England  to-day. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  BATTLE  OF  BRUNANBURH.     Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  21-28. 

2.  KING  EGBEET.     Church,  The  Story  of  Early  Britain;  Guest  and 

Underwood,  Handbook  of  English  History,  Ch.  VIII. 

3.  A  SAXON  VILLAGE.     Green,   Short  History  of  the  English  People, 

pp.  2-4;  Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  4-12. 

4.  ALFRED  THE  GREAT.     Asser,  Life  of  Alfred;  Besant,  Story  of  King 

Alfred;  Guest  and  Underwood,  Handbook  of  English  History, 
Ch.  IX. 


1002]  ALFRED'S  SUCCESSORS  47 

C.    THE  DANISH  AND  NORMAN  CONQUESTS. 

Edward  and  Athelstan,  Alfred's  successors,  completed 
the  conquest  of  the  Danes.  We  hear  nothing  more  of  serious 
outbreaks  until  after  the  death  of  King  Edgar  in  975.  So 
completely  was  Edgar  master  of  England,  that  it  is  said  he 
was  rowed  on  the  Eiver  Dee  by  eight  subject  kings.  Until 
after  his  reign  the  descendants  of  Alfred  kept  up  the  wise 
policy  of  maintaining  a  fleet  and  garrisons  of  soldiers  in. 
strong  forts  to  guard  the  coast.  Dunstan,  the  wise  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  the  chief  counselor  of  Edgar.  He 
wisely  gave  to  the  Danes  local  rulers  of  their  own  blood  and 
allowed  them  to  enjoy  their  own  laws,  thus  gaining  their  good 
will  and  friendship. 

Ethelred  the  "  Unready,"  the  younger  of  Edgar's  two 
sons,  became  king  in  979.  His  elder  brother,  Edward,  called 
the  "  Martyr,"  had  been  murdered  by  an  assassin  employed  by 
Ethelred's  mother,  who  wanted  her  own  son  to  be  king  instead 
of  Edward,  the  son  of  Edgar  by  his  first  wife.  Ethelred 
reigned  thirty-seven  years,  but  before  he  died,  the  Danes 
seized  the  throne  of  England.  There  was  no  wise  Dunstan 
to  give  counsel.  The  earls  of  the  northern  provinces  and  the 
Danish  chiefs  in  England  rebelled.  Pirates  ravaged  the 
coasts.  In  982,  the  kings  of  Norway  and  Denmark  came 
with  a  great  swarm  of  Northmen  to  plunder  England.  Vast 
sums  of  money,  raised  by  a  tax  on  the  land,  were  paid  by 
Ethelred  and  the  Witan  to  induce  the  Northmen  to  withdraw. 
They  took  the  money,  but  became  more  insolent  and  warlike 
than  before.  At  last  Ethelred  ordered  a  general  massacre 
of  Danes  throughout  the  kingdom,  on  St.  Brice's  Day,  the 
13th  of  November,  1002.  The  unsuspecting  people  were 
killed  by  thousands.  They  crowded  into  the  churches  and 
were  slain  around  the  altars.  Among  the  victims  was  Gun- 
hilda,  the  Danish  king'?  sister,  who  had  become  a  Christian 
and  had  married  in  England. 


48  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [1013 

King  Sweyn x  vowed  to  be  avenged  for  his  sister's  death, 
and  entered  the  river  Humber  with  a  great  army.  He 
marched  southward,  and  city  after  city  fell  before  him. 
Finally  London  surrendered,  Ethelred  fled  to  France,  and 
Sweyn  was  made  King  of  England.  But  Sweyn  soon  died, 
and  Ethelred  returned.  Then  Ethelred  too  died,  and  his 
eldest  son,  Edmund  Ironside,  was  murdered.  In  1016  Ca- 
nute, Sweyn's  son,  became  king  of  all  England,  after  fighting 
the  Saxons  for  several  years. 

King  Canute  made  no  change  in  the  laws  and  government 
of  England.  He  ordained  that  both  Danes  and  English 
should  be  subject  to  their  own  laws,  as  in  the  good  days  of 
King  Edgar  the  Peaceful.  He  became  a  Christian,  in  nature 
as  well  as  in  name.  He  urged  his  judges  to  be  sparing  of 
human  life,  while  vigilant  in  punishing  crime;  to  treat  the 
criminals  who  repented  with  less  severity  than  those  who  did 
not  repent ;  to  pity  the  weak,  who  were  often  driven  to  crime 
by  oppression  and  want;  but  to  mete  out  to  the  powerful  the 
full  rigor  of  the  law.  He  forbade  the  sale  of  Christians  into 
slavery,  and  prohibited  the  worship  of  the  old  heathen  gods. 
Nor  would  he  allow  his  officers  to  take  any  property  for  the 
king's  use  without  making  just  payment. 

Canute  Married  Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred  the  Un- 
ready. It  was  agreed  that  the  crown  should  descend  to  their 
children,  in  preference  to  the  children  of  Ethelred.  When 
Canute  had  made  his  English  throne  secure,  he  went  to  Den- 
mark, taking  with  him  Earl  Godwin  and  many  other  English- 
men. Godwin  helped  Canute  to  win  a  great  battle  in 

iTHE   DANISH   KINGS 

SWEYN   (1014) 
CANUTE  (1016-1035) 


HAROLD  (1035-1040)  HARDICANUTE  (1040-1042) 


1066]        .  CANUTE  4y 

Denmark,  and  in  return  the  king  made  him  the  most  power- 
ful nobleman  in  England. 

There  was  peace  in  England  during  all  of  Canute's  reign ; 
but  at  his  death  in  1035  a  strife  broke  out  between  his  two 
sons,  Harold  and  Hardicanute.  Each  of  them  ruled  a  few 
years,  but  they  left  no  children.  Edward,  the  son  of  Ethel- 
red,  was  therefore  chosen  king  when  Hardicanute  died.  The 
people  hailed  Edward  with  joy,  for  they  were  weary  of 
Danish  rule,  and  were  glad  to  have  a  king  descended  from 
the  great  Alfred. 

Relations  with  Normandy.  It  was  not  England  alone 
that  was  subject  to  the  incursions  of  the  Northmen.  They 
ravaged  the  coasts  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  made  set- 
tlements in  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and  even  visited  America. 
They  proved  so  strong  in  France  that  the  French  king  was 
forced  to  divide  his  kingdom  with  them,  just  as  a  few  years 
before  that  time  King  Alfred  had  divided  England  with  Guth- 
rum.  They  received  a  province  in  the  north  of  France,  after- 
wards known  as  Normandy.  Eolf,  or  Eollo,  called  the 
"  Ganger  "  or  "  goer/'  because  of  his  long  legs,  was  baptized, 
took  the  title  of  duke,  and  swore  allegiance  to  the  French 
king,  whom  he  faithfully  served. 

It  was  Eolf's  great-granddaughter  Emma,  called  from  her 
beauty  "  the  Jewel  of  Normandy,"  that  was  married  to  Ethel- 
red  and  afterwards  to  Canute.  Edward,  the  son  of  Ethelred 
and  Emma,  called  on  account  of  his  piety  "  the  Confessor/' 
came  to  the  throne  of  England  in  1042.  He  brought  with 
him  a  great  number  of  Norman  favorites,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  best  places  in  the  government  and  church.  He  was  de- 
voted and  unselfish,  but  so  well  did  he  like  the  Normans, 
that  he  named  as  his  successor  the  Norman  Duke  William. 

Edward  Died  Childless  in  1066,  and  Harold  II.,  a  son 
of  Godwin,  was  elected  by  the  Witan  to  succeed  him.  It  is 
said  that  Harold  had  once  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of 


50  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  .       [1066 

Normandy  and  introduced  to  the  Duke  William's  court, 
where  banquets  and  tournaments  were  held  in  his  honor.  But 
when  he  came  to  depart,  he  was  made  to  swear  on  the  bones 
of  the  saints  that  when  Edward  died  he  would  support  the 
claim  of  William  to  the  throne  -of  England.  Neither  Edward 
nor  Harold,  however,  had  any  right  to  give  away  the  throne 
of  England,  because  only  the  Witenagemote  could  choose  the 
king. 

William's  Claim  to  the  Throne.  Besides  the  promise 
of  Edward,  and  the  forced  oath  of  Harold,  William  claimed 
the  throne  of  England  as  the  inheritance  of  his  wife  Matilda, 
who  was  a  descendant  of  Alfred.  He  had  also  obtained 
the  approval  of  the  Pope,  who  was  displeased  with  the 
Witan  for  expelling  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the 
time  of  Edward.  However  faulty  William's  claim  seemed 
to  Englishmen,  the  people  of  Normandy  and  of  Europe 
generally  came  to  believe  in  its  justice.  His  Norman  sub- 
jects, although  at  first  unwilling  to  enter  upon  a  foreign  war, 
in  the  end  joined  heartily  in  his  enterprise  to  take  the  crown 
of  England  by  force.  It  is  said  that  William  was  making 
ready  to  hunt  when  the  news  came  to  him  that  Harold  had 
accepted  from  the  Witan  his  election  as  king.  "  He  stopped 
short  in  his  preparations;  he  spake  to  no  man  and  no  man 
durst  speak  to  him."  He  presently  sent  a  demand  to  the 
new  king  to  resign  the  crown  to  him,  or  at  least  to  acknowl- 
edge him  as  superior  lord,  and  to  marry  his  daughter.  Har- 
old had  but  one  answer  to  make,  that  he  had  been  chosen 
king  in  a  legal  manner,  and  could  not  choose  a  wife  without 
the  approval  of  the  assembly  of  his  wise  men.  In  fact,  he 
had  already  married  Aldwyth,  the  widow  of  the  king  of 
North  Wales  and  the  sister  of  Edwin  'and  Morkar,  the 
powerful  earls  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria.  This  marriage 
served  to  draw  the  Celtic  and  Danish  people  closer  to  the 
English  throne. 


1066]  HAROLD  II.  51 

Stamford  Bridge.  While  William  was  making  prepara- 
tions for  the  invasion  of  England,  a  new  enemy  threatened 
Harold  in  the  north.  His  brother  Tostig,  who  had  been 
appointed  Earl  of  Northumbria  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
had  been  driven  from  his  earldom  on  account  of  his  mis- 
government,  and  the  people  had  chosen  Morkar  in  his  stead. 
Morkar  was  recognized  as  earl  by  Edward  and  by  Harold; 
and  Tostig  went  abroad  in  search  of  aid  in  regaining  his 
earldom.  He  persuaded  Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Nor- 
way, to  join  him.  The  two  sailed  up  the  Humber  Eiver 
and  attacked  the  city  of  York.  They  defeated  the  earls 
Edwin  and  Morkar  in  a  fierce  battle  and  compelled  the 
Northumbrians  to  join  them  in  a  war  on  Harold  of  England, 
for  Tostig  wanted  to  be  king  himself. 

When  news  of  the  battle  was  brought  to  King  Harold,  he 
gathered  his  army  and  started  north  as  fast  as  men  and  horses 
could  go.  He  fell  in  with  the  Northmen  at  Stamford  Bridge 
on  the  Derwent.  Tostig  and  Hardrada  were  taken  by  sur- 
prise, but  they  drew  up  their  men  in  a  circle  with  the  stand- 
ard in  the  center  and  spearmen  on  the  outer  lines.  As 
Hardrada,  conspicuous  in  blue  mantle  and  glittering  helmet, 
rode  about  the  circle  to  see  that  all  was  ready,  his  horse 
stumbled  and  fell. 

"Who  is  that  chieftain  on  the  ground?"  asked  Harold  of 
England. 

Some  of  the  Northmen  with  him  answered,  "That  is  the 
King  of  Norway/' 

"  He  is  a  gallant  warrior,"  returned  Harold,  "  but  his  end 
is  near." 

Then  twenty  of  King  Harold's  men  rode  out  to  parley  with 
the  Northmen.  As  they  drew  near  one  of  them  said,  "  Is 
Earl  Tostig,  the  son  of  Godwin,  in  this  host?"  and  Tostig 
himself  replied.  Then  said  the  Englishman,  "  King  Harold 
of  England  greeteth  thee,  and  saith  that  you  shall  have  all 


52  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [10GG 

Northumbria,   nay,   even   a  third   of   his   kingdom   to   rule 
over,  rather  than  that  his  brother  should  be  an  enemy." 

Tostig  replied,  "My  brother  speaketh  fair,  but  what  shall 
King  Hardrada  of  Norway  have  fr>r  his  toil  in  coming 
hither  ?» 

The  Englishman  answered,  "  Seven  feet  of  earth  for  a 
grave,  seeing  he  is  a  very  tall  man/' 

Tostig  scorned  to  abandon  his  friend.  For  a  time  the 
spearmen  of  Hardrada  held  firm,  but  in  their  zeal  they 
broke  the  ranks  to  pursue  some  of  the  fleeing  enemy.  The 
English  rushed  into  the  gap.  Tostig  and  Hardrada  were 
killed,  and  their  army  put  to  the  sword.  It  was  one  of  the 
bloodiest  battles  in  the  history  of  England,  and  for  long  after- 
wards the  ground  was  whitened  by  the  bones  of  the  slain. 

The  Battle  of  Hastings,  1066.  Four  days  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Stamford  Bridge,  Duke  William  landed  on  the  coast  of 
England.  He  had  spent  eight  months  in  preparation  and 
had  a  well  equipped  army  and  fleet.  His  own  ship,  a  pres- 
ent from  his  duchess,  Matilda,  was  a  beautifully  decorated 
vessel  with  a  consecrated  banner  floating  from  the  mast- 
head. His  soldiers  were  mostly  knights  on  horseback, 
clad  in  armor. 

His  landing  was  unopposed.  He  put  up  fortifications  and 
gathered  provisions  for  his  troops. 

In  the  mean  time  hurried  messengers  found  Harold  at 
York,  celebrating  in  a  banquet  his  victory  over  the  Northmen. 
His  army  had  been  largely  disbanded  after  the  battle.  The 
northern  earls  refused  to  follow  him  to  the  defense  of  the 
south.  He  marched  at  once  to  London,  enlisting  men  by 
the  way,  and  in  six  days  after  his  arrival,  we  are  told,  "he 
gathered  together  an  innumerable  number  of  Englishmen." 
He  took  position  on  Senlac  Hill  above  the  town  of  Hastings, 
where  William  had  fortified  himself.  This  hill  he  guarded  with 
three  palisades.  His  men  were  ordered  to  keep  close  to  the 


1066] 


NORMAN   CONQUEST 


53 


defenses  and  repel  the  attack  of  the  enemy.     If  they  had 
obeyed,  the  battle  of  Hastings  might  have  gone  differently. 

The  Norman  archers  opened  the  battle,  and  then  the 
Norman  knights  advanced  to  the  attack.  But  they  could  not 
break  through  the  English  defenses,  behind  which,  with 
spear  and  ax,  the  stout  warriors  cut  down  every  Norman 
who  was  rash  enough  to  enter.  All  day  the  English  re- 
pelled the  repeated  charges  of  the  enemy.  At  length  they 
rushed  out  of  their  fort  to  pursue  some  fleeing  troops. 
William  rallied  his  men,  and  facing  about  they  slaughtered 
their  pursuers.  The  duke  himself  led  a  fierce  charge  against 
the  king's  standard,  around  which  were  gathered  the  flower  of 
the  English.  They  stood  firm.  William  then  feigned  re- 


PAKT  OF  THE  BATTLE  OP  HASTINGS  ;  FROM  THE  BAYEUX  TAPESTRY. 

treat,  and  the  undisciplined  English  troops  were  again  drawn 
into  a  pursuit  and  great  numbers  of  them  were  cut  down 
by  the  Norman  cavalry. 

Toward  sunset  William  gave  the  command,  "  Shoot  up- 
ward, Norman  archers,  that  the  arrows  may  fall  upon  their 
.  faces !"  One  of  the  descending  shafts  entered  the  eye  of  the 
English  king.  The  Norman  knights  rushed  toward  the  royal 
standard,  for  while  that  waved  the  English  would  never  re- 
treat. Harold  fell  in  the  deadly  struggle  about  the  flag.  His 
own  guard  would  take  no  quarter  and  died  to  a  man  in  his 
defense ;  but  the  rest  of  the  army  fled,  and  the  Norman  duke 
had  won  the  battle  of  Hastings  and  the  kingdom  of  England. 

William's  banner  was  set  up  where  had  stood  the  golden 


54  ANGLO-SAXON  ENGLAND  [1066 

dragon  of  Wessex.  In  after  times,  William  built  there  his 
great  minster,  the  Battle  Abbey,  whose  altar  marks  the  spot 
where  the  standard  of  the  English  king  was  taken. 

The  Bayeux  Tapestry,  in  the  public  library  of  Bayeux 
in  France  (map,  p.  76),  is  the  most  famous  record  of  the 
Norman  invasion  and  the  battle  of  Hastings.  On  a  piece  of 
canvas  seventy-one  yards  long  by  twenty  inches  in  breadth, 
are  embroidered  in  various  colors  seventy-two  pictures  repre- 
senting the  different  scenes  in  the  conquest.  This  work  is 
said  to  have  been  done  by  Matilda  and  the  ladies  of  her  court. 
It  is  of  great  value  in  showing  the  dress  and  weapons  of  the 
time,  the  kind  of  ships  and  the  manner  of  fighting,  besides 
giving  us  pictures  of  many  events  in  connection  with  this 
famous  battle. 

Crowning  of  William.  After  the  battle,  the  Conqueror 
marched  slowly  to  London,  securing  the  important  towns  on 
the  way.  He  was  sturdily  opposed  in  many  places,  but  by 
his  wise  policy  and  kind  treatment  of  the  English,  he  secured 
their  submission.  The  Archbishop  of  York  crowned  him  on 
Christmas  Day  in  the  new  church  of  Westminster,  close  to 
London,  built  by  Edward  the  Confessor. 

The  Four  Conquests.  And  so  the  first  act  in  the  fourth 
conquest  of  Britain  was  finished.  The  Romans  had  found 
the  country  rude  and  uncivilized.  They  subdued  the  savage 
people  and  taught  them  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  civilized 
life.  They  built  roads  and  cities,  and  encouraged  trade  and 
manufactures.  But  the  severe  Koman  rule  made  the  people 
little  better  than  slaves.  The  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  wiped  out 
in  England  every  trace  of  the  Roman  influence  except  the  roads 
and  names  of  places.  It  brought  in  what  was  far  better,  how- 
ever,—  the  Saxon  idea  that  all  men  are  equal  before  the  law, 
and  the  practice  of  allowing  every  freeman  to  take  part  in  the 
government.  The  Anglo-Saxons,  after  several  hundred  years 
of  residence  in  England,  became  sluggish  and  corrupt,  and 


1066]  NORMAN    CONQUEST  55 

wasted  their  strength  in  civil  wars.  The  Danish  conquest 
(1016)  brought  peace  and  unity.  This  vigorous,  daring  race 
of  Northmen  stirred  up  the  older  Saxons  to  new  life.  In  the 
next  chapter  we  shall  learn  something  about  the  important 
changes  in  England  brought  about  by  the  Norman  conquest. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  mistakes  did  Ethelred  make  in  his  treatment  of  the  Danes? 

2.  Why   was   William's  claim   to   the   English  crown  of  no  value? 

3.  Compare    the    Norman    and    the    English    manner    of    fighting    at 

Hastings. 

4.  Tell  some  advantage  and  some  disadvantage  resulting  to  England 

from  each  of  the  four  conquests.     Give  the  date  of  the  beginning 
of  each.     What  weakness  in  government   made  each  possible? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  VIKINGS.     S.  W.  Dasent,  The  Vikings  of  the  Baltic. 

2.  ELFRIDA.     Dickens,  A  Child's  History  of  England,  Ch.  IV. ;  Morris, 

Stories   from  English  History. 

3.  CANUTE.     Freeman,   Old-English  History,  pp.  222-246. 

4.  THE    BATTLE   OF   HASTINGS.     Green,   Short   History,   pp.    75-77; 

Jewett,  Story  of  the  Normans,  Ch.  XV. 


III.    ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS.1 

A.    THE  NORMAN  GOVERNMENT. 
William  I.,  1066-1087. 

The  English  Thanes  and  Bishops  offered  allegiance  to 
William  on  his  arrival  in  London  and  were  kindly  treated. 
But  the  northern  earls  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria  hastened 
away  to  their  estates. 

William  was  not  betrayed  into  a  feeling  of  security  by  the 
apparent  submission  of  the  people.  He  feared  especially  the 
strong  city  of  London  with  its  free  and  independent  popula- 
tion. He  laid  waste  the  land  about  the  city  so  that  no  aid 
could  be  brought  to  it  from  outside.  He  built  within  the  city 
a  strong  fortress  that  became  the  famous  Tower  of  London, 
where  so  many  distinguished  prisoners  have  been  confined  and 
put  to  death. 

Many  such  Norman  castles  were  soon  built  throughout 
England,  at  first  hastily;  but  gradually  they  grew  into  im- 
mense fortresses  of  solid  stone,  with  towers  from  which 
missiles  could  be  thrown  upon  besiegers.  Each  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  mound  of  earth  and  a  broad  moat  filled  with 

1THE  NORMAN  KINGS 

WILLIAM  I.,  the  Conqueror    (1066-1087) 


Robert,  Duke  of     WILLIAM  IT.       HENRY  I.  Adela,  m.   Count  of  Blois 

Normandy  (1087-1100)  |    (1100-1135)  | 

STEPHEN  (1135-1154) 
Geoffrey   Plantagenet,   m.   Matilda 

I 
Henry  II.   (p.  76) 

56 


1066] 


WILLIAM  I. 


57 


water.     "Within  was  room  for  a  large  body  of  soldiers,  and 
provisions  and  supplies  of  war. 

Greed  of  the  Normans.    William  had  held  out  to  his  fol- 


COROXATIOX  OP  WILLIAM  THE  COXQUEBOE. 

lowers  promises  of  a  rich  booty  from  the  conquest  of  England, 
and  they  could  be  restrained  from  plundering  only  by  his 
immediate  presence.  Even  while  the  coronation  ceremonies 

NlVER 4. 


58  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1066 

were  taking  place  at  Westminster,  some  of  the  Norman  soldiers 
set  fire  to  the  adjoining  houses  and  began  to  pillage  in  the  con- 
fusion. 

The  estates  of  the  English  who  fought  at  Hastings  had 
been  taken  by  the  king,  and  his  army  had  seized  a  vast 
amount  of  property  on  the  march  to  London.  But  this  was 
all  too  little  to  gratify  the  rapacity  of  his  men,  or  to  make 
good  his  promises.  As  he  claimed  to  be  the  lawful  successor 
of  Edward,  he  was  an  English  king,  and  it  would  not  do  to 
plunder  his  own  people  without  a  decent  pretext. 

Outbreaks  of  the  English  soon  furnished  the  pretext. 
A  few  months  after  his  coronation,  William  returned  to 
Normandy.  Thereiipon  the  Norman  soldiers  in  the  different 
garrisons  began  to  rob  and  abuse  the  English  people.  When 
the  English  protested  against  such  treatment  they  were  refused 
protection  and  justice.  They  now  rose  and  began  to  attack 
the  garrisons,  and  the  news  of  this  outbreak  soon  brought 
William  to  England. 

It  is  probable  that  William  secretly  rejoiced  at  an  oppor- 
tunity to  chastise  the  English.  He  was  quite  as  greedy  as 
his  followers,  and  he  resolved  now  to  crush  a  people  who  he 
declared  could  not  be  won  by  kindness.  On  William's  return 
he  dismissed  his  English  friends  with  promises  of  just  gov- 
ernment ;  but  immediately  afterward  he  levied  a  large  tax  on 
them  for  means  of  keeping  them  in  subjection.  He  had 
gained  the  support  of  Earl  Edwin  of  Mercia  by  promising 
his  daughter  in  marriage,  but  as  soon  as  he  felt  secure,  he 
refused  to  keep  the  promise. 

The  people  in  the  different  parts  of  England  did  not  unite 
against  William,  and  he  subdued  one  district  after  another 
in  the  course  of  the  next  three  years.  In  the  north,  the  peo- 
ple sent  for  help  to  the  Danish  king,  who  claimed  the  throne 
of  England  as  his  inheritance.  The  Danish  forces  were  joined 
along  the  river  Humber  by  a  company  from  Scotland,  and  by 


1071]  WILLIAM  L  59 

men  from  the  west  and  north  of  England.  The  united  forces 
besieged  York  and  massacred  its  garrison  of  three  thousand 
Normans. 

When  William  heard  this  news  he  swore  a  great  oath  that 
not  a  Northumbrian  should  be  left  alive.  He  bribed  the 
Danes  to  retire.  He  then  laid  waste  the  country  between  the 
Humber  and  the  Tees.  His  orders  were  that  every  living 
thing,  men,  women,  children,  and  animals,  should  be  slain; 
that  all  crops  and  buildings  should  be  burned ;  and  that  farm- 
ing tools  should  be  broken  so  that  there  might  be  no  means  of 
supporting  life.  Of  the  people  who  escaped  to  the  moors  and 
mountains,  it  is  said  a  hundred  thousand  died  of  starvation. 
So  thoroughly  was  the  work  done,  that  the  country  north  of 
the  Humber  was  spoken  of  for  fifty  years  afterward  as  a 
"  waste,"  a  desert. 

In  a  later  revolt  against  William  the  "  promise-breaker/' 
Earl  Edwin  of  Mercia  was  killed,  but  his  brother  Morkar  of 
Northumbria  escaped  and  joined  Hereward,  the  "last  of  the 
English,"  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  island  fortress  of  Ely. 

Years  afterward  the  English  loved  to  honor  the  name  of 
Hereward.  He  had  been  banished  by  Edward,  and  had 
served  in  foreign  wars.  When  he  heard  of  the  death  of  his 
father  and  that  his  mother  had  been  driven  from  the  old 
home  by  a  Norman,  he  returned  to  England  and,  gathering 
his  vassals,  drove  the  Normans  out.  On  this  exploit  being 
noised  abroad,  every  Englishman  who  wanted  to  avenge  his 
wrongs  hastened  to  Hereward.  William  resolved  to  sub- 
due this  determined  chief.  He  stationed  ships  along  the 
Wash  to  prevent  an  escape,  and  built  a  solid  road  for  two 
miles  across  the  fens  to  the  island.  Hereward  attacked  the 
workmen  with  such  fury  and  success  that  the  Normans 
thought  the  devil  must  have  been  helping  him.  To  en- 
courage them  William  placed  an  old  sorceress  in  a  wooden 
tower  which  was  pushed  along  in  front  of  the  men.  Then 


60  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1071 

one  day  Hereward  sallied  out  suddenly  and  burned  the  tower 
and  sorceress  together.  But  the  work  was  pushed  steadily 
on  until  Hereward's  men  were  forced  to  surrender.  He 
alone  escaped  across  the  swamps  and  hid  in  the  woods.  The 
king,  who  admired  a  brave  warrior,  offered  to  give  him  back 
his  father's  estate.  Hereward  swore  allegiance  to  William 
and  was  faithful  to  him  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Scotland.  After  one  of  the  English  revolts  William  in- 
vaded Scotland  and  compelled  King  Malcolm  to  kneel  before 
him  and  swear  to  be  faithful.  He  then  allowed  Malcolm  to 
keep  his  crown  as  a  vassal  of  England.  This  meant  that  if 
he  should  ever  rebel  or  again  assist  William's  enemies  as 
he  had  done,  William  would  have  the  right  to  declare  the 
crown  forfeited  and  to  give  the  kingdom  to  another.  Mal- 
colm's kingdom  had  grown  up  gradually  from  a  kingdom 
founded  by  a  tribe  of  Scots  who  came  from  Ireland  in  the 
sixth  century.  The  rule  of  the  Scottish  kings  was  extended 
over  the  native  Picts  and  also  over  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  the 
Lowlands.  The  Scots  of  this  time  were  thus  partly  Celtic 
and  partly  English  in  race. 

How  William  Divided  the  Land.  There  was  now  peace 
in  England.  The  nobles  were  completely  vanquished.  Wil- 
liam declared  to  be  forfeited  all  property  of  those  who  had 
fought  against  him.  He  therefore  became  the  owner  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  England.  He  allowed  the  English  thanes  to 
keep  some  small  estates,  but  the  greater  part  he  divided 
among  his  Norman  followers.  In  this  way  about  twenty 
thousand  Normans  became  landholders  in  England. 

William  did  not,  however,  give  to  any  one  many  estates 
in  the  same  county,  but  each  baron's  possessions  were  scat- 
tered over  England.  This  prevented  the  noble  from  becom- 
ing too  powerful  and  made  him  dependent  on  the  king  for 
the  protection  of  his  scattered  estates.  Each  baron  in  return 
for  his  land  agreed  to  furnish  at  the  call  of  the  king  a  certain 


1087] 


WILLIAM  L 


61 


number  of  knights,  mounted  and  completely  armed.     It  was 

customary  to  divide  the  laud  into  portions  called  "  knights' 

fees,"  the  holder  of  each  knight's  fee  being  bound  to  furnish 

one  knight  at  the  call  of  the  king.     There 

were  about  sixty  thousand  knights'  fees 

in  England,  thus  placing  a 

powerful  army  of  cavalry  at 

the  king's  service.  The  large 

landholders,  after  reserving 

part  of  the  land  for  their 

own  use,  would  divide  the 

rest  into  knights'  fees  to  be 

sublet  to  vassals  on  the  same 

conditions    as    those   which    had 

been  made  by  the  king.    Only  their 

knights'    fees    might    be    much 

smaller    than   those   which   were 

held  of  the  king. 

Aids  and  Reliefs,  as  well  as 
military  service,  were  required  of 
the  tenants  of  the  king.  These 
were  names  given  to  certain  taxes. 
There  was  the  "  scutage,"  or  war- 
tax,  which  was  required  in  case  the  required  number  of 
knights  was  not  supplied.  If  the  king  was  taken  prisoner 
and  a  ransom  required,  if  his  eldest  son  was  to  be  made  a 
knight,  or  his  eldest  daughter  married,  he  could  call  upon  his 
tenants  for  an  "aid,"  or  money  tax,  to  defray  the  expense. 
Every  heir,  before  he  could  have  his  inheritance,  had  to 
pay  to  his  lord  a  sum  of  money  called  "relief."  If  the  heir 
was  under  age  the  lord  had  the  income  of  the  land  until  the 
heir  attained  his  majority.  If  a  tenant  died  without  heirs, 
the  land  reverted  to  the  lord.  If  a  tenant  committed  any  one 
of  a  long  list  of  ^jjyyes,  he  forfeited  his  estate  to  his  _lprd,  / 


A  NORMAN  KNIGHT 


68  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1072 

his  blood  was  held  to  be  "attainted,"  and  no  heir  could 
inherit  property  through  him. 

Fealty  was  required  of  every  tenant.  Kneeling,  with  his 
hands  placed  between  those  of  his  lord,  he  repeated  the  oath : 
"  I  become  your  liege  man  of  life  and  limb  and  earthly 
worship;  and  faith  and  truth  I  will  bear  to  you  to  live  and 
die."  The  man  then  was  obliged  to  respect  and  obey  his  lord ; 
and  the  lord  was  obliged  to  protect  his  man  in  life  and  prop- 
erty. 

Don^sday  Book.  When  William  had  finished  his  divi- 
sion m.  the  estates  of  England  among  his  followers,  he 
causla  a  grand  survey  of  the  realm  to  be  made,  together 
with  a  list  of  every  man's  property.  "  So  carefully  did  he 
have  it  done,"  says  the  Chronicle,  "that  there  was  not  an 
ox,  or  a  cow,  or  a  pig  passed  by."  All  this  information  was 
written  down  in  a  great  book  called  "  Domesday  Book,"  the 
word  dome,  or  doom,  meaning  judgment.  After  this  when  a 
dispute  arose  concerning  what  was  due  the  king,  judgment 
was  given  by  appealing  to  the  figures  in  this  book. 

Fealty  to  the  King;  Feudal  System.  The  land  which 
a  vassal  held  of  his  lord,  for  which  he  took  the  oath  of 
fealty,  was  called  a  "  fief  "  or  "  feud,"  from  an  old  French  or 
Latin  word  meaning  faith.  Hence  the  system  of  military  gov- 
ernment through  the  holding  of  land,  which  has  just  been 
described,  was  called  the  "  Feudal  System."  In  some  coun- 
tries where  this  system  prevailed,  the  lower  tenants  swore 
fealty  only  to  their  immediate  lord.  But  William  would  have 
every  landholder  swear  fealty  to  him,  so  that  the  first  duty  of 
every  one  of  them  would  be  to  his  king.  He  accordingly 
caused  all  the  nobles,  landholders,  and  their  vassals,  to  the 
number  of  60,000,  to  assemble  on  Salisbury  plain  and  there 
kneel  before  him  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Henceforth 
every  man  in  the  realm  was  bound  to  fight  first  of  all  for  the 
king,  even  if  he  had  to  fight  against  his  lord. 


1087]  WILLIAM  I.  63 

How  the  English  were  Kept  Faithful.  The  English 
were  far  more  numerous  than  the  Normans,  and  if  they  had 
not  been  in  fear  of  the  king  and  his  trained  army,  they 
would  have  risen  and  driven  the  Normans  out.  Thus  the 
Norman  landowner  must  depend  upon  the  king  for  protection 
against  the  English.  The  English  hated  the  Normans,  who 
lived  upon  land  which  had  been  theirs,vand  to  whom  they 
were  obliged  to  swear  allegiance  for  the  little  strips  of  land 
that  they  held.  They  perhaps  hated  the  king  too^mt  they 
hated  the  nobles  far  more ;  and  since  they  could  not^ave  an 
English  king,  a  Norman  king  was  better  than  none^at  all. 
Hereafter,  when  trouble  arises  between  the  king  and  his'  Nor- 
man lords,  we  shall  find  the  English  fighting  on  the  king's 
side. 

The  Forests.  William  was  fond  of  hunting.  Miles  of 
country  were  cleared  of  houses  to  make  forests  for  the  king's 
hunting.  Sixty  parishes  were  devastated  in  Hampshire  to 
make  room  for  the  "New  Forest/'  There  were  in  later 
times  sixty-eight  of  these  forests.  Any  one  who  was  caught 
chasing  the  king's  game  was  punished  with  the  greatest 
cruelty. 

William  and  the  Pope.  The  Pope  who  had  sanctioned 
William's  attack  on  England  was  now  dead,  and  a  new  Pope. 
Gregory  VII.,  known  as  Hildebrand,  had  taken  his  place.  It 
was  owing  to  Gregory's  influence  that  William  had  received 
the  Pope's  sanction.  As  Gregory  now  wished  to  make  reforms 
in  the  church,  he  counted  on  William's  aid.  He  would  abolish 
the  sale  of  offices  in  the  church  and  would  enforce  the  laws 
forbidding  the  marriage  of  priests;  and  he  thought  that  all 
countries  and  kingdoms  should  do  homage  to  him  as  the  head 
of  the  church. 

William  agreed  to  help  the  Pope,  but  insisted  that  all  com- 
munication between  him  and  the  church  in  England  must 
receive  the  king's  approval.  As  for  doing  homage,  William 


64  ENGLAND  UNDER   NORMAN   KINGS  [1073 

refused,  but  he  promised  the  same  fealty  that  other  English 
kings  had  paid;  and  exacted  that  no  subject  of  his  should  be 
put  out  of  the  church  without  the  king's  permission,  that  no 
meeting  of  church  authorities  in  England  should  make  laws 
without  his  leave,  and  that  all  letters  coming  to  England  from 
the  Pope  should  first  be  submitted  to  the  king. 

The  Character  of  William  was  stern,  cruel,  and  severe, 
but  he  was  a  lover  of  peace.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  tells 
us  "  he  made  such  good  peace  in  the  land  that  a  man  that  was 
good  for'aught  might  travel  over  England  with  his  bosom  full 
of  gold  without  molestation."  He  was  a  man  of  great  height 
and  immense  strength.  No  other  man  could  bend  his  bow  or 
follow  him  upon  the  march,  and  when  he  was  in  anger  his 
appearance  was  so  terrible  that  we  are  told  no  man  dared 
speak  in  his  presence.  William  instituted  the  odious  curfew, 
and  he  appointed  only  Normans  to  high  places,  but  he  never 
appointed  ignorant  or  wicked  men  to  important  positions  in 
the  church.  He  made  Lanfranc,  who  had  been  the  head  of  a 
Norman  abbey,  his  chief  adviser  and  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  none  could  be  found  with  a  keener  mind  or  a  purer 
heart. 

William's  Council  was  composed  of  the  great  landholders 
—  that  is,  of  the  higher  clergy  and  nobility  of  the  realm. 
Three  times  each  year  they  were  summoned  to  meet  the  king 
to  advise  with  him  about  the  government  of  the  country. 
Archbishops,  bishops,  earls,  and  barons  came  from  all  over 
England,  and  the  king  was  able  to  learn  everything  of  im- 
portance concerning  the  state  of  the  kingdom.  This  body 
became  known  as  the  "  Great  Council."  It  was  the  succes- 
sor of  the  Witenagemote.  It  was  the  aim  of  William  to 
continue  as  far  as  possible  the  English  institutions  and 
laws,  for  he  wished  to  be  considered,  not  as  a  conqueror,  but 
as  the  rightful  successor  of  Edward.  The  history  of  the  Great 
Council  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  out  of  it  grew  up 


1088]  WILLIAM  II.  65 

the  House  of  Lords,  the  Commons,  the  Courts  of  Law,  and 
the  Cabinet. 

Last  Days.  William's  later  years  were  made  sad  by  the 
rebellion  of  his  eldest  son,  Eobert.  Robert  had  demanded  of 
his  father  the  rule  of  Normandy,  and  when  it  was  refused 
him,  tried  to  take  it  by  force.  He  was  driven  out  and  com- 
pelled to  live  in  exile.  Soon  after  this,  during  a  war  with 
the  King  of  France,  William  was  so  injured  by  the  stumbling 
of  his  horse  that  he  died.  He  divided  his  possessions  among 
his  three  sons.  To  William,  called  Eufus,  or  the  Red,  he 
gave  the  kingdom  of  England;  to  Robert  he  left  the  duchy 
of  Normandy ;  and  to  Henry,  called  "  Beau  Clerc,"  or  "  fine 
scholar,"  who  had  been  the  pupil  of  the  learned  Lanfranc,  he 
left  five  thousand  pounds,  with  the  prediction  that  in  the  end 
Henry  would  obtain  both  England  and  Normandy. 

William  II.,  1087-1100. 

William  Rufus  hurried  to  England  to  secure  the  crown 
and  royal  treasure.  Henry  made  equal  haste  to  get  his 
money  into  a  safe  place ;  but  Robert,  who  as  eldest  son  might 
have  claimed  the  throne,  made  no  exertion  to  obtain  it. 

William  II.  had  all  the  greed,  cruelty,  and  willfulness  of 
his  father,  but  none  of  his  sense  of  justice,  respect  for  re- 
ligion, or  wise  statesmanship.  He  was  blustering  and  very 
wicked,  and  irritated  his  great  nobles  to  such  a  degree  that 
they  soon  formed  a  conspiracy  to  dethrone  him  and  to  put 
Robert  in  his  place.  They  knew  that  generous,  easy-going 
Robert  would  allow  them  their  own  way  in  evervthing.  The 
people  saw  that  they  would  become  the  slaves  of  the  barons 
if  there  were  no  king  strong  enough  to  protect  them.  When 
William  II.  called  on  them  for  aid  and  promised  to  restore 
the  good  laws  of  Edward,  they  rallied  to  his  support  twenty 
thousand  strong.  Two  of  the  most  powerful  nobles  were 


66 


ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS 


[1088 


captured  with  the  strong  castle  of  Bochester,  where  they  had 
prepared  for  defense;  the  other  rebellious  nobles  were  soon 
compelled  to  surrender,  and  the  struggle  was  at  an  end.  But 
William  did  not  fulfill  his  promise  to  the  English  to  restore 
the  old  laws,  and  he  levied  heavier  taxes  than  ever. 

Anselm.     The  pious  Lanfranc,  who  had  been  the  adviser 
of  William  L,  now  died,  and  William  II.  seized  upon  the 
revenues  of   Canterbury   and  refused  to 
appoint  any  one  to  the  highest 
post  in  the  church  in  England. 
Other     vacancies    in     the 
church  also  were  kept 
open  by  William,  who 
would  not  fill  them  un- 
less he  were  paid  a  sum 
of  money  corresponding 
to    the    revenue    of    the 
post.     But  once  he  was 
taken  very  ill,  and  was 
persuaded  as  a  pious  act 
to  appoint  a  virtuous  and 
wise  priest  named  Anselm, 
who  like  Lanfranc  had  been 
an  abbot  in  Normandy,  to 
be  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. Soon  William 
recovered    his    health 
and  demanded   contri- 
...„.,,  butions  from  his  bar- 

ons for  one  of  his  expe- 
EUFUS  STONE,  NEW  FOREST.  ditions.      Anselm  sent 

five  hundred  pounds  of  silver,  which  was  refused  by  the  king. 
Anselm  then  distributed  the  silver  among  the  poor.  But  his 
quarrels  with  the  king  finally  forced  him  to  leave  England. 


1100]  WILLIAM  IL  67 

The  Crusades  were  wars  waged  by  the  Christian  nations 
of  Europe  to  recover  the  holy  city  of  Jerusalem  from  the 
Saracens.  The  first  Crusade,  or  "war  for  the  cross/'  was 
stirred  up  by  a  French  priest,  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  went 
about  telling  how  shamefully  the  Saracens  treated  pious 
pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  aroused  great  enthusiasm 
everywhere.  Among  those  who  wished  to  lead  an  army  to 
Palestine  was  Eobert.  He  had  already  sold  a  third  of  Nor- 
mandy  to  Henry  for  three  thousand  pounds,  and  he  now  of- 
fered William  the  income  of  the  duchy  for  five  years,  for  the 
ten  thousand  pounds  he  needed  to  equip  his  expedition. 
William  agreed  at  once.  Eobert  accordingly  went  on  the  cru- 
sade and  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  but  he  loitered 
on  his  return,  so  that  he  lost  a  second  opportunity  to  claim  the 
throne  of  England. 

William's  Death.  After  a  hunt  in  the  New  Forest,  the 
king  was  found  dead,  with  an  arrow  in  his  breast.  It  was 
never  known  who  shot  the  arrow.  Some  said  it  was  shot 
at  a  stag  and  struck  the  king  by  accident.  Others  recalled 
an  old  prophecy  that  "  the  New  Forest  would  bring  evil 
upon  the  descendants  of  the  Conqueror,"  who  had  destroyed 
so  many  homes  of  the  poor  to  obtain  it ;  and  whispered  that  the 
king  had  been  murdered  by  some  revengeful  Englishman. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Compare  the  Anglo-Saxou  and  Norman  ways  of  dividing  the  lands 

2.  How  did  William  keep  both  the  Norman  nobles  and  the  conquered 

English  in  subjection  ? 

3.  "What  was  the  value  of  the  Domesday  Book  ? 

4.  Describe  the  feudal  system,  mentioning  social  classes,  taxation,  fealty, 

and  the  duties  of  lords  and  vassals. 

5.  How  was  feudal  government  adapted  to  a  lawless  and  unsettled 

country  ? 

*\.  Explain  the  relations  of  William  and  Gregory  VII. 
7.  Why  did    the  conquered   English  favor  the  king  rather  than  the 

barons  ? 


68  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1100 

£  Give  three  reasons  for  the  importance  of  the  Norman  Great  Coun- 
cil.    Who  attended  it? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  HEBEWAED.     Kingsley,   Hereward;   Morris,   Hereward,    the    Wake. 

2.  ROBERT  OF  NORM  ANDY.     Dickens,  A   Child's  History  of  England, 

Ch.  X.;  Jewett,  Story  of  the  Normans    (see  index). 

3.  ANSELM.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  73-74,  90,  91,  90. 

4.  THE    KING'S    FORESTS.     Kendall,    Source   Book,    p.    48;    Jewett, 

Story  of  the  Normans. 

B.    THE  STRUGGLE  WITH  THE  BABONS. 
Henry  I.,  1100-1135. 

Henry  rode  at  full  speed  to  Winchester  to  demand  the 
crown  and  royal  treasure.  An  attempt  was  made  by  the 
keeper  to  hold  them  for  Kobert,  but  Henry  had  the  determina- 
tion of  his  father,  and  his  threat  of  instant  death  changed 
the  keeper's  mind.  In  the  absence  of  Anselm,  the  Bishop 
of  London  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head. 

A  Charter  of  Liberties  was  issued  to  the  people  at  the 
beginning  of  Henry's  reign,  to  secure  their  support  against 
any  attempt  to  place  Eobert  on  the  throne.  This  charter 
contained  the  king's  promise  not  to  steal  the  money  of  the 
church,  as  his  brother  had  done.  It  forbade  all  lords  to 
extort  from  their  tenants  too  large  aids  and  reliefs;  and  it 
promised  to  restore  to  the  nation  at  large  the  old  English 
law  as  William  the  Conqueror  had  amended  it.  The  king 
also  became  suddenly  virtuous,  drove  all  wicked  men  and 
women  from  his  court,  and  recalled  the  distinguished  Arch- 
bishop Anselm,  professing  for  him  the  highest  regard. 

At  the  request  of  his  advisers  he  married  Matilda  or 
Maud,  the  daughter  of  the  Scotch  King  Malcolm  and  de- 
scended through  her  mother  from  Alfred  the  Great.  You 
may  imagine  how  the  English  rejoiced  over  a  queen  of  their 
own  race,  but  the  Normans  held  up  to  ridicule  the  pretended 


1106]  HENRY  I.  69 

goodness  of  the  king  and  the  real  goodness  of  the  queen,  and 
gave  them  the  English  nicknames  "  Godric  "  and  "  Godiva." 

War  with  Robert.  The  year  following  the  coronation  of 
Henry  brought  Robert  back  to  Normandy.  After  duly  cele- 
brating his  return,  he  leisurely  began  preparations  to  invade 
England.  But  the  two  brothers  held  a  conference  and  made 
peace.  Henry  soon  afterward  sought  a  quarrel  with  Robert 
and  invaded  Xormandy.  In  the  battle  of  Tinchebrai,  Eobert 
was  totally  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner;  and  he  was  shut 
up  in  Cardiff  castle,  near  the  Severn,  for  the  rest  of  his  long 
life.  Henry  now  became  Duke  of  Xormandy  as  well  as  King 
of  England. 

The  Appointment  of  Church  Officers  was  the  cause  of 
a  quarrel  between  Henry  and  the  Pope.  To  understand  this 
quarrel,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  estates  set 
apart  for  the  support  of  the  clergy  were  held  on  the  same 
conditions  as  the  barons  held  theirs,  namely,  those  of  fealty 
and  military  service.  Each  bishop  and  abbot  had  to  do  homage 
to  the  king,  furnish  soldiers,  and  pay  aids  and  taxes.  These 
officers  were  selected  by  the  king,  though  by  church  law  they 
were  supposed  to  be  elected  by  the  priests  or  monks  of  the 
cathedral  church  or  abbey.  But  we  have  seen  how  shamefully 
William  II.  had  abused  his  power.  To  prevent  such  abuses  it 
seemed  necessary  for  the  Pope  to  take  away  from  kings  the  ap- 
pointment and  control  of  all  church  officers.  Anselm  refused 
to  do  homage  to  Henry,  and  a  dispute  arose  which  was  finally 
settled  by  giving  the  Pope  the  right  of  investing  the  bishops 
with  the  ring  and  staff,  the  symbols  of  their  spiritual  power, 
while  Henry  reserved  the  right  of  exacting  military  service  and 
aids,  and  of  having  their  election  by  the  lower  clergy  take 
place  in  the  king's  court.  The  king  thus  kept  the  power  of 
preventing  the  election  of  an  enemy  to  a  prelacy  in  Eng- 
land, while  the  Pope  had  the  power  to  exclude  incompetent  or 
immoral  men,  by  refusing  to  install  them  in  office. 


70  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1124 

The  King's  Justice.  As  soon  as  Henry  felt  safe  on  his 
throne  he  did  not  hesitate  to  break  all  the  good  promises  he 
had  made  in  his  charter.  But  he  would  allow  no  one  else 
to  break  the  laws.  During  his  reign  crime  was  severely  pun- 
ished ;  it  was  said,  "  No  man  durst  misdo  against  another  in 
Henry's  time"  At  one  sitting  of  a  court  (1124),  forty-four 
robbers  were  hanged.  He  would  not  allow  any  coin  to  be 
made  less  than  legal  value,  and  any  coiner  who  dared  to  do 
it  had  his  hands  struck  off  or  his  eyes  put  out.  He  would 
not  allow  any  of  his  lords  to  take  the  people's  property  un- 
justly, and  gained  from  them  the  title,  which  he  did  not 
deserve,  of  "the  Lion  of  Justice." 

Eeally,  Henry  was  cruel,  treacherous,  and  greedy.  He  en- 
forced justice  because  it  brought  money  into  the  royal  treas- 
ury. Every  criminal  either  forfeited  his  estate  to  the  king 
or  paid  a  large  fine.  Henry's  word  could  not  be  depended 
upon  for  a  moment.  When  a  certain  nobleman  was  told  that 
the  king  had  said  pleasant  things  about  him,  he  cried  out, 
"Alas !  I  am  ruined ;  for  misfortune  has  come  to  every  man 
that  the  king  praises."  It  would  take  the  rest  of  this  book 
to  tell  the  story  of  all  those  whose  hands  or  feet  Henry  had 
cut  off,  or  whom  he  caused  to  be  blinded. 

Henry's  Only  Son  William  was  drowned  in  crossing  the 
Channel  in  a  vessel  called  the  "  White  Ship."  The  courtiers 
sent  a  little  child  to  tell  Henry  the  sad  news;  and  this  king, 
so  hard  and  cruel  to  others,  fell  fainting  to  the  floor,  so 
stricken  was  he  by  his  loss. 

"  The  bark  that  held  a  prince  went  down, 

The  sweeping  waves  rolled  on ; 
And  what  was  England's  glorious  crown 

To  him  that  wept  a  son? 
He  lived  —  for  life  may  long  be  borne 

Ere  sorrow  break  its  chain ; 
Why  comes  not  death  to  those  who  mourn? 

He  never  smiled  again."  1 
1From  the  poem  "  He  Never  Smiled  Again,"  by  Mrs.  Hemans. 


1135J  STEPHEN  71 

His  daughter  Matilda  married  Geoffrey,  Count  of  Anjou, 
one  of  the  most  important  provinces  of  France.  Henry 
wished  Matilda  to  succeed  him,  and  had  induced  some  of  his 
barons  to  swear  to  support  her ;  but  when  he  died  a  stronger 
candidate  for  the  throne  appeared  in  the  person  of  her 
cousin  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois.  He  was  a  good-natured, 
brave,  and  gallant  gentleman,  but  lacked  the  sternness  and 
force  necessary  to  hold  the  haughty  barons  in  check. 

Stephen,  1135-1154. 

The  Reign  of  Stephen  taught  the  people  of  England  how 
to  value  the  rule  of  a  stern  king  like  Henry  the  First.  All 
the  evils  of  the  feudal  system  were  felt  in  Stephen's  time. 
"Soon  did  the  land  fall  into  trouble,"  the  Chronicle  says, 
"and  every  man  began  to  rob  his  neighbor  as  he  might." 
The  barons,  secure  in  their  great  stone  castles,  set  the  king's 
authority  at  defiance.  "When  the  traitors  saw  that  he  was 
a  mild  man,  and  a  soft  and  a  good,  and  that  he  did  not 
enforce  justice,  they  broke  their  oaths  of  allegiance  to  him, 
and  built  castles  throughout  the  land.  They  greatly  op- 
pressed the  wretched  people,  making  them  work  at  these  cas- 
tles, which,  when  finished,  they  filled  with  devils  and  evil 
men."  Some  of  them  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  build  for 
themselves.  They  seized  upon  the  nearest  church  or  mon- 
astery and  converted  it  into  a  castle. 

The  robber  barons  went  out  at  night  and  seized  men  and 
women  whom  they  suspected  of  concealing  property,  and 
tortured  them  until  they  gave  it  up.  "  They  hung  some  up 
by  their  feet  and  smoked  them  with  foul  smoke,  and  some  by 
the  thumbs,  and  some  by  the  head,  and  they  hung  burning 
things  on  their  feet.  And  they  put  knotted  cords  about  their 
'heads  and  twisted  them  until  they  went  into  the  brain.  And 
some  they  put  into  a  chest  that  was  short  and  narrow  and 
not  deep,  and  they  put  sharp  stones  in  it  and  crushed  the 


72  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1135 

man  therein,  so  that  they  broke  all  his  limbs.  And  this  state 
of  things  lasted  the  nineteen  years  that  Stephen  was  king, 
and  ever  grew  worse  and  worse/' 

The  land  about  these  castles  was  soon  deserted,  and  the 
barons  themselves  frequently  were  reduced  to  starvation  and 
were  obliged  to  ride  many  miles  before  they  could  obtain  food. 
"  Then  was  corn  dear,  and  flesh  and  cheese  and  butter,  for 
there  was  none  in  the  land ;  wretched  men  starved ;  some  lived 
on  alms,  who  had  before  been  rich.  Some  fled  from  the 
country.  Never  was  there  more  misery,  and  never  acted 
heathen  worse  than  these." 


BEFORE   THE    BATTLE  OF  THE    STANDARD. 

The  Wars  of  Stephen  and  Matilda  added  to  this  horrible 
state  of  lawlessness.  Some  of  the  nobles  had  attached  them- 
selves to  the  cause  of  Matilda,  some  to  that  of  Stephen.  But 
a  large  number  held  aloof  from  both.  They  wanted  no 
sovereign  at  all,  in  order  that  they  might  be  free  to  continue 
their  robbery  and  murder. 

David,  King  of  Scotland,  took  up  the  cause  of  his  niece, 
Matilda,  and  three  times  invaded  England.  The  third  time 
he  was  defeated  by  a  brave  priest,  Thurstan,  the  old  Arch- 


1153]  STEPHEN  73 

bishop  of  York,  in  the  "Battle  of  the  Standard."  A  tall 
cross  mounted  on  a  cart  and  surrounded  by  the  banners  of 
Yorkshire  saints  was  taken  into  the  field.  At  the  foot  of 
the  cross  the  archbishop  read  prayers,  and  the  English  archers 
and  Norman  knights  pledged  themselves  to  conquer  or  die. 
A  furious  attack  of  the  Scots  was  repulsed,  and  David  re- 
tired, leaving  twelve  thousand  men  dead  upon  the  field. 

Next,  Matilda  won  a  fierce  battle  at  Lincoln.  Stephen 
was  made  prisoner.  She  then  marched  to  London  and  was 
acknowledged  as  queen.  She  enjoyed  but  a  brief  reign. 
London  had  been  first  to  accept  Stephen,  and,  to  punish  the 
city,  Matilda  levied  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  people  and  revoked 
the  laws  of  King  Edward,  which  had  been  sanctioned  by 
Stephen.  At  this  crisis,  the  followers  of  the  captured  Stephen 
appeared  before  the  city.  The  bells  were  rung  and  the  peo- 
ple at  once  joined  his  party.  They  attacked  Matilda's  army, 
drove  them  out  of  the  city,  and  in  the  pursuit  captured  many 
of  her  followers,  including  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester,  the 
leading  spirit  of  her  cause.  To  save  his  life,  he  was  forced 
to  release  Stephen,  for  whom  he  was  exchanged.  The  war 
was  now  renewed,  and  Matilda  was  driven  out  of  the  country. 

Henry  Plantagenet,  Matilda's  son,  had  been  growing  in 
prosperity  and  power.  First  he  was  made  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  then  from  his  father  he  inherited  the  province  of 
Anjou.  In  1152,  Henry  married  Eleanor,  the  former  wife 
of  the  King  of  France,  and  with  her  came  the  two  provinces 
of  Aquitaine  and  Poitou.  Henry  now  had  more  territory  in 
France  than  the  French  king  himself.  He  took  the  field 
against  Stephen  in  support  of  his  mother's  claim.  Stephen 
became  alarmed  and  disheartened,  and  made  peace  by  adopt- 
ing Henry  as  his  successor.  The  barons  on  both  sides  were 
compelled  to  take  oath  to  carry  out  the  agreement  and  to 
give  hostages  to  Henry.  Stephen  and  Henry  then  visited 
the  chief  cities  of  England,  and  were  joyfully  received  by 

NlVKK- 


74  ENGLAND  UNDER  NORMAN  KINGS  [1154 

the  people,  who  felt  now  that  the  period  of  lawlessness  was 
at  an  end.  Henry  now  retired  to  France.  But  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (1154)  Stephen  died,  and  Henry  returned  to  Eng- 
land to  become  the  first  of  the  Plantagenet  kings. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  were  the  people  affected  by  Henry's  charter? 

2.  In  what  ways  was  each   of   the   Conqueror's   sons   unlike  him? 

3.  What  policy  was  agreed  on  with  regard  to  the  church  appointments  ? 

4.  What  does  Stephen's  reign  teach  us  of  the  people  of  England? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  NORMANDY.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  71-74;   Jewett,   Story  of 

the  Normans, 

2.  THE  WHITE  SHIP.     C.  W.  Colby,  Sources  of  English  History,  pp. 

49-52;   Mrs.   Hemans's  poem,  He  Never  Smiled  Again;  D.  G. 
Rossetti,  The  White  Ship. 

3.  THE  ROBBER  BARONS.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  101-103;  Ken- 

dall, Source  Book,  pp.  51-55. 

4.  ROBIN  HOOD.     Lang,  Book  of  Romance,  pp.  323-355;  Pyle,  Merry 

Adventures    of    Robin   Hood. 


IV.     THE  EAELY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS,1 

A.     THE  DATS  OF  CHIVALET. 
Henry  II.,  1154-1189. 

The  Extent  of  Henry's  Possessions  made  him  the  most 
powerful  king  in  Europe.  His  dominions  extended  from  the 
Pyrenees  to  Scotland,  and  included  more  than  half  of  France. 
So  far  as  his  French  lands  were  concerned,  he  was  the  vassal 
of  the  French  king,  but  he  was  more  powerful  than  his  lord. 
The  King  of  Scotland  became  his  man,  and  during  his  reign 
parts  of  Wales  and  Ireland  were  joined  to  his  dominions. 

The  Name  Plantagenet  reminds  us  of  the  beginning  of 
the  custom  of  having  surnames.  They  were  introduced  by 
the  Normans.  Count  Geoffrey,  Henry's  father,  wore  on  his 
helmet  a  sprig  of  the  broom  plant  (in  Latin,  planta  genista). 
This  gave  rise  to  his  surname,  Plantagenet.  }-': 

Henry's  Character  and  Rule.  Henry  II.  was  a  tall, 
strong  man.  He  was  always  at  work,  and  could  not  sit  still, 
even  when  at  church.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  man- 
aged his  own  affairs,  and,  as  he  had  a  very  large  realm,  was 
always  busy.  More  than  half  his  time  was  spent  in  France 
looking  after  his  possessions  there,  and  arranging  marriages 
for  his  children  and  keeping  them  in  order.  This  last  grew 

1  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENETS. 


HENRY  II.    (1154-1189)    (p. 
1 

56) 

1          1 

Henry       Geoffrey 
Arthur 

1 

RICHARD  I.  Cceur  de  Lion 
(1189-1199) 

1 
JOHN,   Lackland 
|     (1199-1216) 
HENRY  III. 
1     (1216-1272) 

Edward  I. 

(p.  102) 

Edmund, 

Earl  of  Lancaster  (p.  188> 
75 


DOMINIONS  OP 
HENRY  II. 


Longitude      West     5°     from     Greenwich 


0°          Longitude     East 


76 


1154]  HENRY  II.  77 

to  be  a  very  difficult  business,  on  account  of  his  queen,  Eleanor, 
who  brought  them  up  to  be  willful  and  disobedient. 

Reforms  of  Henry.  Many  castles  that  had  been  built  in 
England  during  the  civil  war  were  still  dens  of  robbery  and 
murder,  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  Henry's  reign  was  to 
demolish  several  hundred  of  them.  Henry  declared  that 
there  should  be  peace  and  justice  in  the  land,  that  the  ancient 
laws  should  be  restored,  and  that  he  would  "  spare  neither 
friend  nor  foe  who  resisted/'  Accordingly  those  nobles  who 
would  not  surrender  their  castles  were  besieged  and  com- 
pelled to  yield.  Henry  also  made  reforms  in  the  courts. 

The  Circuit  Courts.  A  court  is  a  means  of  securing  to 
every  man  what  rightfully  belongs  to  him,  and  of  fixing  the 
punishment  of  those  who  break  the  laws.  In  the  time  of  the 
Xorman  kings  the  county  or  shire  court  became  the  most 
important.  The  judges  were  the  chief  lords  of  the  county, 
assisted  by  the  king's  sheriff,  whose  duty  it  was  to  see  that 
justice  was  meted  out  to  the  offender.  The  sheriff  was  also 
the  collector  of  the  king's  revenue,  which  came  from  a  i&x 
on  the  land,  from  the  aids  and  reliefs  of  the  feudal  system, 
and  from  the  fines  imposed  by  the  courts.  In  the  troubled 
times  of  the  preceding  reign,  the  barons  had  driven  out 
the  king's  sheriffs  and  conducted  the  courts  for  their  own 
benefit.  The  unfortunate  people  who  fell  into  their  hands 
were  sure  to  be  fined,  whether  guilty  or  innocent,  and  the 
fine  went  to  the  lord  instead  of  to  the  king. 

Henry  put  a  stop  to  these  evils  by  carrying  out  more  fully 
a  practice  that  his  grandfather,  Henry  I.,  had  begun.  He 
divided  the  kingdom  into  circuits  and  appointed  men,  called 
"the  king's  judges,"  who  were  to  go  through  the  country 
holding  court  in  each  hundred  and  county,  hearing  the  suits 
of  the  people  and  punishing  criminals.  These  judges  did 
not  fear  to  enter  the  estates  and  castles  of  the  proudest  nobles 
in  the  land.  They  also  assisted  the  sheriff  in  the  collection  of 


78  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGEXET  KINGS  [1154 

taxes.  The  people  soon  came  to  have  the  greatest  respect 
for  the  king's  court.  The  feudal  courts  held  by  the  barons 
were  abolished. 

Jury  Trials.  Besides  the  ordeals  of  fire  and  water,  and 
the  Norman  custom  of  wager  of  battle  whereby  contestants 
settled  their  dispute  by  a  combat,  Henry  revived  or  established 
an  agency  for  determining  a  man's  guilt  or  innocence  which 
we  still  use, —  the  grand  jury.  Wherever  the  king's  judges 
held  court,  the  sheriff  would  summon  twelve  men  to  form  a 
jury.  It  was  their  duty  to  bring  before  the  judges  every  per- 
son in  their  hundred  who  in  their  opinion  had  committed  a 
crime.  In  Henry's  time,  if  the  accused  pleaded  not  guilty 
and  the  jury  could  not  prove  his  guilt,  he  was  sent  to  the 
ordeal  by  cold  water;  this  consisted  in  throwing  the  accused 
into  a  pond;  if  he  floated  without  swimming,  he  was  held 
innocent.  In  later  times  it  became  and  still  is  the  duty  of 
a  jury  to  pronounce  an  accused  person  guilty  or  innocent 
according  to  the  evidence  brought  before  them.  Such  a 
jury  we  call  a  trial  jury. 

Taking  Shield  Money,  or  scutage,  was  another  way  in 
which  Henry  crushed  the  power  of  the  barons. 

Every  tenant  of  the  king  was  bound  to  keep  for  the  king's 
use  a  certain  number  of  trained  knights  armed  and  mounted. 
But  in  the  last  reign  the  barons  had  used  these  soldiers  to 
fight  their  own  battles,  and  not  the  king's.  In  time  of  peace, 
these  knights,  who  despised  any  employment  except  war, 
would  enter  the  service  of  some  foreign  king,  or  go  on  a 
crusade  to  fight  the  infidels,  or,  if  they  remained  at  home, 
they  would  prey  upon  the  defenseless  people.  Two  measures 
adopted  by  Henry  put  a  stop  to  these  evils. 

Instead  of  asking  a  soldier  of  his  tenant,  he  taxed  him 
"  shield  money,"  that  is,  enough  money  to  pay  a  soldier.  A 
baron  who  was  bound  to  furnish  ten  knights  now  paid  the 
king  a  tax  sufficient  to  hire  ten  knights.  When  the  king 


1164]  HENRY  II.  79 

wanted  soldiers,  he  hired  them  where  he  pleased.  If  he  did 
not  want  them,  he  put  the  money  into  his  treasury.  As  the 
barons  were  imable  to  support  their  knights  and  pay  the  tax 
too,  they  had  to  disband  them;  and  so  large  numbers  of 
knights  were  obliged  to  make  homes  for  themselves  and  en- 
gage in  some  useful  occupation. 

The  second  measure  consisted  in  arming  the  people.  Every 
freeman  must  be  provided  with  spear  and  bow,  or  with  sword 
and  armor,  according  to  his  station.  This  was  the  old  Anglo- 
Saxon  system,  which  had  enabled  Harold  II.  to  raise  a  large 
army  in  six  days.  The  people  were  quick  to  see  the  benefit  of 
this  reform,  while  the  barons  regarded  it  as  a  humiliation. 

Relations  of  Church  and  State.  In  order  to  understand 
the  quarrel  of  Henry  with  the  church  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  we  must  see  how  the  church  was  related  to  the 
government. 

Christianity  was  established  in  England  by  the  mission- 
aries sent  by  the  Pope.  Augustine,  the  first  missionary,  be- 
came the  first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  primate  of  the 
church  in  England.  When  there  were  several  Saxon  king- 
doms, constantly  engaged  in  war,  there  was  always  one 
church,  peaceful  and  united.  The  union  in  the  church 
helped  to  bring  about  unity  in  the  state,  and  to  preserve  it. 
Feudal  relations  among  the  Saxons  did  not  extend  to  the 
clergy;  but  with  the  coming  of  the  oSTormans,  the  holders  of 
the  estates  belonging  to  the  church  were  obliged  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  to  render  military  service,  and 
to  perform  other  feudal  obligations.  The  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops in  England  were  always  active  in  political  affairs. 
We  find  Dunstan  the  leading  statesman  in  the  time  of  the 
later  Saxon  kings,  and  after  that  time  nearly  every  wise 
statesman  was  a  churchman. 

William  I.  had  kept  the  church  in  subjection  to  the  state, 
but  about  the  time  he  came  to  the  throne  the  Pope  began  to 


80  THE    EARLY   PLANTAGENET   KINGS  [1164 

make  the  affairs  of  the  church  everywhere  less  dependent  on 
the  state.  We  have  seen  the  compromise  made  by  Henry  I. 
as  to  the  appointment  of  bishops.  The  control  of  the  bishops 
had  become  especially  important  in  England  because  of  a 
change  in  the  manner  of  trying  accused  clericals,  —  priests, 
deacons,  and  monks  of  all  ranks, — including  nearly  all  the 
educated  men  in  the  kingdom.  In  Saxon  times,  the  bishop  and 
sheriff  presided  over  the  same  court,  in  which  all  classes  of 
criminals  were  tried.  But  in  the  reign  of  William  I.  the  bish- 
op's court  for  the  trial  of  clerical  offenders  was  separated  from 
that  of  the  sheriff.  Moreover,  the  penalties  imposed  in  the 
bishop's  court  were  much  milder  than  those  used  in  the  other 
courts,  and  could  not  involve  the  shedding  of  blood.  No  cleri- 
cal, for  instance,  could  be  sentenced  to  death,  even  for  murder. 

The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  were  drawn  up  at  the 
king's  order,  and  presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  lords  and 
bishops  of  the  realm  at  Clarendon  in  Wiltshire.  \  They  were 
intended  to  secure  equal  punishment  for  clericals  and  laymen 
guilty  of  the  same  offense,  and  to  increase  the  king's  power. 
A  clerk  charged  with  a  secular  offense  was  to  answer  in  the 
king's  court,  then  be  tried  in  a  church  court,  and  if  convicted, 
was  to  be  degraded  and  punished  as  a  layman.  ,  The  constitu- 
tions forbade  church  appointments  or  appeals  to  the  Pope 
without  the  consent  of  the  king,  and  contained  other  obnoxious 
provisions.  These  laws,  as  affecting  the  church,  had  to  be 
agreed  to  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  was  the 
representative  of  the  Pope  in  England.  If  he  should  refuse,  it 
would  make  no  end  of  trouble  for  Henry.J 

Thomas  a  Becket  was  the  son  of  a  returned  crusader 
and  a  Saracen  lady.  There  is  a  very  pretty  romance  told  of 
Thomas's  father  and  mother,  which  you  will  find  in  the  story 
books.  Thomas  received  a  careful  education  and  became  an 
archdeacon  in  the  church.  His  brilliant  qualities  brought 
him  into  favor  with  the  young  king.  In  a  short  time  he  be- 


1170] 


HENRY  II. 


81 


came  chancellor,  or  chief  minister.  Presently  the  king  had 
him  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  so  Becket  was  ordained 
priest,  and  then  consecrated  as  bishop.  Henry  chose  Becket 
for  the  primate  of  the  English  church,  supposing  that  his  long- 
time frieud  and  chancellor  would  do  anything  that  he  desired. 
But  as  soon  as  Becket  entered  his  high  office,  he  resigned  the 
chancellorship,  and  set  about  to  reform  matters  of  church 
discipline.  He  refused  to  approve  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon.  The  king,  however,  put  these  laws  into  operation 
without  the  arch- 
bishop's consent,  and 
"clerics"  who  had  com- 
mitted crimes  were 
"carried  in  carts  before 
the  judges  just  as 
though  they  were  or- 
dinary men."  Henry 
showed  his  displeasure 
with  Becket  in  so  many 
ways  that  the  arch- 
bishop fled  to  France. 
'"The  Murder  of 
Becket.  In  order  to 
insure  a  peaceful  suc- 
cession to  the  throne, 
Henry  adopted  a  cus- 
tom in  use  generally 
among  the  kingdoms 
of  Europe,  of  having 
his  eldest  son  crowned 
during  his  own  reign.  The  Archbishop  of  York  officiated  at 
the  coronation  ceremonies,  but  as  this  was  an  invasion  of  the 
rights  of  the  primate,  the  Pope  excommunicated  the  Arch- 
bishop of  York  and  the  bishops  who  had  assisted  him. 


MURDER  OF  BECKET  ;    FROM  AX 
ILLUMINATED  MANUSCRIPT. 


82  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1170 

Henry  was  now  frightened,  and  made  peace  with  Beoket, 
who  returned  to  England.  Becket  was  asked  to  remove  the 
sentence  of  excommunication,  but  he  refused  until  the  prelates 
had  made  amends.  When  the  news  of  this  was  brought  to 
Henry,  in  Normandy,  he  leaped  up  in  passion  and  cried  out 
in  the  presence  of  his  court,  "  Among  all  the  cowards  here  who 
eat  my  bread,  is  there  not  one  who  will  rid  me  of  this  insolent 
priest?"  Four  of  his  knights  immediately  crossed  the  Chan- 
nel and  set  out  for  Canterbury.  They  forced  their  way  into 
the  palace  of  the  archbishop.  When  he  refused  to  recall  the 
excommunication  they  followed  him  into  the  church  and  slew 
him  before  the  altar. 

The  Result  of  the  Murder  was  to  arouse  much  popular 
sympathy.  When  the  news  of  his  death,  or  martyrdom,  spread 
through  the  land,  there  was  a  general  outcry  of  horror  against 
the  king  and  the  murderers.  The  Pope  declared  him  to  be  a 
saint,  and  for  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  no  shrine  received 
the  veneration  of  more  numerous  or  devoted  pilgrims  than  that 
of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket. 

Henry,  when  he  heard  the  news  of  the  murder,  foresaw  the 
storm  and  prepared  to  meet  it.  He  sent  envoys  to  the  Pope, 
promising  to  grant  whatever  terms  might  be  required  for  ab- 
solution,—  that  is,  for  the  forgiveness  of  his  sin,  —  and  insist- 
ing that  he  never  meant  by  his  hasty  words  that  Becket  should 
be  slain.  After  withdrawing  to  Ireland  for  a  time,  he  went 
barefoot  to  the  shrine  of  Becket,  and  asked  forgiveness  on  his 
knees  at  the  grave  of  the  dead  man.  The  monks  of  the  abbey 
scourged  him  with  rods,  and  he  then  received  absolution.  This 
happened  four  years  after  the  death  of  Becket. 

The  Invasion  of  Ireland  was  made  by  Henry  with  the 
intention  of  making  his  youngest  son,  John,  king  of  that 
island.  He  allowed  Eichard  de  Clare,  who  was  surnamed 
"Strongbow,"  to  enlist  English  soldiers  for  this  adventure. 
A  feud  among  the  native  Irish  kings  had  compelled  Derinot, 


1189]  HENRY  II.  83 

the  King  of  Leinster,  to  fly  from  the  island.  He  now  re- 
turned, and  joined  his  native  forces  to  those  of  Strongbow. 
Dublin  was  captured,  and  after  a  council  at  Cashel,  the 
bishops  submitted  to  Henry,  who  agreed  to  help  them  in 
their  reforms.  But  the  Norman  barons  in  Ireland  became 
thoroughly  Irish.  The  English  part  of  the  island,  known  as 
"  the  Pale,"  was  soon  reduced  to  a  small  area  around  Dublin. 
During  Henry's  reign  was  begun  the  policy  by  which  England 
would  neither  establish  a  government  nor  permit  the  Irish 
to  rule  themselves. 

'Henry 's  Troubles  with  his  Sons  made  his  later  years 
heavy  with  sorrow.  He  had  crowned  his  eldest  son,  Henry, 
as  his  successor,  but  this  young  man  was  impatient  to  come 
into  possession  of  power,  and  wished  his  father  to  give  him 
Normandy  or  England  at  once.  Being  refused,  he  joined 
his  brothers  Richard  and  Geoffrey,  and  King  Louis  of 
France,  in  an  attempt  to  take  away  from  King  Henry  his 
French  provinces.  Queen  Eleanor  also  joined  her  sons  against 
her  husband,  and  the  king  shut  her  up  in  a  strong  castle, 
where  he  kept  her  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  also  subdued  his 
sons  and  defeated  King  Louis  in  this  war. 

Prince  Henry  sickened  and  died  a  few  years  later,  during 
another  rebellion,  and  it  is  said  that  no  one  shed  a  tear  at  his 
death.  His  treachery  to  his  father,  who  was  only  too  kind 
and  forgiving  to  him,  brought  upon  him  the  dislike  of  even 
those  who  pretended  to  be  his  friends. 

Richard  and  the  new  king  of  France,  Philip  II.,  made  war 
on  King  Henry  in  1188  and  drove  him  out  of  his  father's 
old  province  of  Anjou.  The  poor  king  was  ill,  broken  in 
spirit,  and  tired  of  life.  His  only  desire  was  to  leave  the 
kingdom  to  John,  the  only  one  of  his  sons  he  thought 
faithful  to  him.  But  he  had  no  heart  to  fight  against  Rich- 
ard. He  surrendered  to  Philip  and  among  other  things  prom- 
ised to  forgive  all  the  rebels.  On  opening  the  list  given  him, 


84 


THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1189 


he  saw  among  the  first  names  that  of  John,  who  had  secretly 
joined  his  enemies.  This  broke  the  old  king's  heart,  and 
turning  his  face  to  the  wall  he  said,  "  I  have  nothing  left  to 
care  for  now.  Let  all  things  go  their  way/'  A  few  days 
after  this,  he  died. 

Richard  I.,  1189-1199. 

Richard  came  to  the  throne  without  opposition,  although 
his  elder  brother  Geoffrey  had  left  an  infant  son,  and  although 
his  father  had  intended  to  leave  the  kingdom  to  John.  Eich- 
ard  was  crowned  with  great  pomp  at  Westminster.  The 
ceremonies  attending  his  coronation  have  been  followed  in 
the  case  of  every  English  sovereign  since  his  time. 

The  Third  Crusade.  About  two  years  before  this,  news 
came  that  Jerusalem,  where  the  Christians  had  set  up  a 


CBUSADEBS. 

kingdom  in  1099,  had  been  taken  by  the  great  Mohammedan 
leader  Saladin.  Both  Eichard  and  his  father  took  the  cross, 
that  is,  agreed  to  go  on  the  crusade  to  deliver  the  holy  city; 
and  now  all  Europe  was  aflame  with  enthusiasm.  Eichard's 
friend  Philip,  King  of  France,  was  going,  and  Frederick,  the 
greatest  of  the  German  Emperors,  was  on  the  way  with  a 
large  army. 


1191]  RICHARD  I.  85 

Two  months  after  receiving  his  crown,  Kichard  began  his 
preparations.  He  needed  vast  sums  of  money,  and  his  king- 
dom was  of  value  to  him  only  as  a  means  of  raising  it.  For 
he  was  really  a  foreigner;  he  had  been  brought  up  in  Nor- 
mandy and  could  not  speak  a  sentence  in  English.  During 
his  reign  of  ten  years,  he  spent  only  a  few  months  in  England, 
and  he  governed  his  kingdom  through  a  minister. 

In  order  to  raise  part  of  the  needed  money,  he  sold 
offices;  the  sheriffs,  judges,  and  bishops  purchased  appoint- 
ments. Those  who  held  office  paid  in  order  to  keep  it.  The 
Scottish  king  purchased  his  independence  for  a  huge  sum. 
Many  of  the  larger  towns  purchased  charters  and  the  privi- 
lege of  governing  themselves.  The  king,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  nobles,  compelled  the  Jews  to  lend  vast  amounts  of 
money,  and  then  massacred  them  by  the  hundred  to  be  re- 
lieved of  the  necessity  of  paying  it  back.  The  estates  belong- 
ing to  the  king  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  On  his 
enemies,  he  imposed  fines;  from  his  friends  he  exacted  pres- 
ents, and  everybody  was  taxed.  The  same  processes  were 
repeated  when  Eichard  passed  over  to  Normandy  on  his  way 
to  the  East.  His  final  preparations  were  made  in  France,  in 
connection  with  Philip.  A  hundred  thousand  men  were 
marshaled  beneath  their  banners,  and  marched  southward  to 
Marseilles,  whence  vast  fleets  transported  them  to  Palestine. 

Meanwhile  the  German  army  had  gone  on  by  land;  but 
Emperor  Frederick  was  drowned  in  crossing  a  river,  and  only 
a  few  of  his  men  succeeded  in  fighting  their  way  to  Acre. 
This  was  a  Moslem  stronghold  on  the  coast  of  Palestine, 
blocking  the  way  to  Jerusalem.  The  combined  crusaders 
captured  it,  but  only  after  the  loss  of  many  men.  Eichard 
was  so  domineering  and  jealous  that  King  Philip  quarreled 
with  him  and  went  home;  and  before  long  Eichard  also  in- 
sulted Duke  Leopold,  the  leader  of  the  Germans.  Weakened 
by  dissensions,  the  crusaders  accomplished  little  more.  Jaffa 


86  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  L1191 

was  taken,  and  Kichard  led  his  army  almost  to  Jerusalem; 
but  it  was  now  much  weaker  than  Saladin's,  and  Richard 
had  to  give  up  the  struggle.  Before  turning  back  he  ascended 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  whence  he  was  told  he  could  see  within 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  But  refusing  to  look,  he  covered 
his  face  and  turned  away,  saying  that  he  was  not  worthy  to 
look  upon  the  Holy  City,  if  he  could  not  deliver  it  from  the 
enemies  of  the  cross. 

In  the  next  hundred  years  there  were  several  more  crusades ; 
but  excepting  a  few  years  Jerusalem  remained  in  Moham- 
medan hands.  The  chief  effect  of  the  crusades  was  to  make 
western  Europe  acquainted  with  two  higher  civilizations  — 
the  Arabic  and  the  Greek  —  and  to  give  an  impulse  to  trade. 

Richard's  Return  to  England.  In  returning  overland 
through  Austria  Richard  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy 
Duke  Leopold.  In  those  days  it  was  a  piece  of  rare  good 
fortune  to  get  hold  of  a  king.  Leopold  turned  his  prisoner 
over  to  his  superior  lord,  the  German  Emperor,  who  locked 
him  up  in  a  strong  castle  until  his  mother  and  friends  in 
England  paid  a  heavy  ransom  for  him. 

During  Richard's  absence  there  had  grown  up  serious 
trouble  between  his  minister  and  the  nobles.  The  King  of 
France  had  conspired  with  John  and  several  great  barons 
to  keep  Richard  a  prisoner  and  place  John  upon  the  throne. 
Civil  war  had  broken  out,  when  Richard  landed  in  England 
in  1194.  The  mere  report  of  Richard's  arrival  scattered 
John's  followers  at  once,  so  great  was  the  dread  of  his  prowess 
as  a  warrior.  He  regarded  the  rebellion  with  such  contempt 
that  he  scarcely  deigned  to  punish  the  leaders,  and  he  for- 
gave his  brother  for  his  treason.  After  a  two  months'  stay 
in  his  kingdom,  he  gathered  his  soldiers  together  and  sailed 
away  to  France. 

Wars  with  Philip  and  Death.  After  Philip's  return  from 
the  Holy  Land,  he  had  prepared  to  attack  Richard's  posses- 


1199] 


RICHARD  I. 


sions  in  France,  and  the  rest  of  this  reign  is  a  tedious  account 
of  treaties,  truces,  and  alliances  which  were  broken  as  soon 
as  made.  Eichard,  however,  held  all  his  provinces  and  left 
them  to  be  lost  by  his  brother  a  few  years  later.  In  1199 
word  came  to  Eichard  that  one  of  his  vassals,  the  Viscount 
of  Limoges,  had  found  upon  his  estate  a  buried  treasure  of 
silver  and  gold.  Eichard  asserted  his  royal  right  to  all  the 
treasure.  The  viscount  would  not  give  all,  although  he  sur- 
rendered the  larger  part  of  it.  Eichard  accordingly  besieged 
his  castle  at  Chaluz,  and  swore  he  would  take  it  by  storm 
and  hang  every  man  within.  The  garrison  offered  to  yield 
if  he  would  promise  safety,  but  were  refused,  and  prepared 
to  defend  the  castle  to  the  last  extremity.  Before  the  castle 
was  taken  Eichard  was  wounded  by  an  arrow  shot  from  the 
battlements.  After  twelve  days  of  suffering  he  died. 

Knighthood  and  Chivalry.  Eichard  stands  out  in  his- 
tory as  the  ideal  knight  of  the  days  of  chivalry.  His  bravery 
in  battle  gained  him  the 
surname  of  Cceur  de  Lion, 
or  "  Lion-Heart."  He 
fought  more  for  the  love 
of  fighting  than  for  vic- 
tory, and  treated  his  con- 
quered enemy  with  gen- 
erosity. He  even  pardoned 
the  archer  who  from  the 
walls  of  his  own  castle  shot 
the  arrow  that  caused  his 
death.  «  What  harm  have  CoxFEBHING  KNIGHTHOOD  ON  THE  FlELD 

I   done  you,  that  you  have     OP  BATTLE  ;   FROM  AN  ILLUMINATED 

killed  me !"  asked  Eichard.  MANUSCKIPT. 

The  archer  replied,  "  You  slew  with  your  own  hand  my  father 
and  brothers."  "I  forgive  you  my  death,"  returned  the 
king,  and  ordered  him  to  be  released. 


88  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1189 

The  Normans  introduced  into  England  the  form  of  military 
education  which  ended  in  knighthood.  The  boys  of  noble 
parentage  who  were  poor  were  put  under  the  care  of  some 
distinguished  noble,  at  whose  castle  they  grew  up  and  re- 
ceived their  training.  They  first  served  as  pages,  their  duties 
being  to  carry  messages,  to  attend  the  ladies,  and  to  learn 
the  details  of  feudal  service,  and  the  duties  and  exercises  of 
knighthood.  At  fourteen,  the  page  became  a  squire.  He 
now  had  to  attend  his  lord  in  battle,  carry  his  lance,  assist  him 
in  putting  on  his  armor,  and  rescue  or  defend  him  if  he  was 
wounded.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  the  squire  became  a 
knight  and  a  member  of  the  "chivalry/'  as  the  order  of 
knights  was  called. 

He  was  initiated  into  knighthood  usually  with  a  great  deal 
of  ceremony.  He  first  had  to  spend  a  night  fasting  and  pray- 
ing in  the  church ;  the  next  day  a  discourse  was  made  to  him 
on  the  duties  and  qualities  of  a  knight.  He  then  knelt  before 
his  lord  and  promised  to  be  faithful  to  him  "with  life  and 
limb/'  Finally  he  received  his  armor  and  weapons,  his 
golden  spurs  were  buckled  on,  and  the  lord,  striking  him  on 
the  shoulder  with  the  flat  of  his  sword,  said,  "  In  the  name  of 
God,  of  St.  Michael,  and  of  St.  George,  I  dub  thee  Knight ;  be 
brave,  bold,  and  loyal."  It  was  the  duty  of  the  knight  not 
only  to  fight  bravely,  but  to  be  gentle  and  merciful;  to  be 
kind  to  the  weak,  to  treat  women  with  courtesy  and  respect  — 
in  one  word,  to  be  chivalrous. 

The  Tournament  was  made  by  Eichard  of  great  impor- 
tance in  England  to  give  the  young  men  practice  in  the  use 
of  arms.  This  was  a  mock  battle  fought  by  mounted  knights 
in  full  armor,  but  with  blunted  weapons.  A  large  field  was 
leveled  and  fenced  in,  called  the  "  lists/'  Two  companies  of 
knights  would  then  be  chosen,  taking  their  places  at  opposite 
ends  of  the  lists.  At  a  given  signal  they  charged,  meeting 
in  the  center  with  a  terrible  shock,  the  object  of  each  knight 


1199]  RICHARD  I.  89 

being  to  unhorse  his  adversary.  If  all  the  knights  were  un- 
horsed, they  fought  on  foot  with  swords  until  one  side  yielded. 
The  victors'  names  were  then  proclaimed  by  a  herald,  and  the 
victors  received  prizes  from  the  hands  of  the  lady  who  had 
been  chosen  queen  of  the  tournament.  Sometimes  two  cham- 
pions would  joust  by  themselves,  and  then  the  victor  would 
fight  any  one  who  chose  to  dispute  his  championship. 

The  People,  during  Richard's  long  absence  from  England, 
had  made  great  progress  in  the  art  of  carrying  on  their  own 
government.  Under  the  rule  of  Hubert  Walter,  the  king's 
minister,  or  "  justiciar,"  as  he  was  then  called,  they  were  en- 
couraged and  trained  in  this  respect.  He  taught  them  to 
choose  assessors  to  levy  and  collect  taxes;  to  elect  juries  for 
the  courts  and  representatives  to  transact  any  business  that 
needed  to  be  done.  He  thus  prepared  the  people  to  take  a 
more  active  part  in  the  government  of  England. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Who  were  benefited  by  Henry  II. 's  reforms?     In  what  way? 

2.  Why  did  the  church  object  to  the  Clarendon  Constitutions? 

3.  Compare  the  jury  of  Henry's  time  with  the  compurgators  of  the 

Saxons. 

4.  How  did  Richard's  reign  affect  the  cities?     The  people? 

5.  Why  were  the  king's  courts  better  than  those  of  the  shire? 

6.  What  does  the  story  of  Becket  teach  about  the  power  of  the  church? 

7.  What  led  to  the  Crusades?     How  did  they  affect  Europe? 

8.  How  did  the  training  of  a  knight  fit  him  for  life?     Describe  the 

tournament ;  its  value ;  good  and  bad  results. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THOMAS  A  BECKET.     DeVere,  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury;  Green, 

Short   History,  pp.   106-112. 

2.  THE   CRUSADE  OF  RICHARD   I.     Archer,    Crusade  of  Richard   I.; 

Scott,  The  Talisman,  Ch.  XXVII. 

3.  KNIGHTHOOD  AND   CHIVALRY.     Green,   Short   History,   pp.   182-3 ; 

Blaisdell,  Stories  of  English  History,  96-100. 

4.  RICHARD'S  IMPRISONMENT  AND  ESCAPE.     Morris,  English  Histor- 

ical Tales,  pp.  87-100. 


90  THE  EARLY  PLAXTAGEXET  KINGS  [1199 

B.    THE  WINNING  OF  THE  CHABTER. 
John,  1199-1216. 

King  John  had  all  the  bad  qualities  of  the  Xorman  house, 
and  none  of  the  good  ones.  He  was  avaricious,  cruel,  and 
desperately  wicked.  When  fortune  smiled  upon  him,  he 
was  haughty  and  contemptuous;  when  in  difficulties,  abject 
and  cowardly.  It  was  said  of  him  that  "he  neither  feared 
God  nor  regarded  man/'  His  coronation  oath  required  him 
"to  defend  the  church,  to  maintain  justice,  to  make  good 
laws  and  abolish  evil  customs/'  He  did  none  of  these  things. 
His  very  meanness  and  cruelty,  however,  had  good  results; 
they  drove  his  subjects  to  revolt  and  put  a  check  upon  his 
power  in  the  form  of  the  Magna  Charta,  or  Great  Charter,  which 
has  ever  since  been  the  safeguard  of  the  people's  liberties. 

Loss  of  the  French  Provinces.  The  lawful  heir  to  the 
throne  was  not  John,  but  Arthur,  Duke  of  Brittany,  the  son 
of  John's  elder  brother  Geoffrey.  Eichard  had  wished  Arthur 
to  become  king,  but  Arthur  was  only  a  boy,  and  the  old  Saxon 
custom  of  electing  from  the  royal  family  a  man  who  could 
lead  in  battle,  prevailed.  John  was  so  thoroughly  hated  in 
France  that  the  people  refused  to  acknowledge  him,  and  sup- 
ported the  claim  of  Arthur.  As  a  vassal  of  the  King  of 
France,  Arthur  called  upon  his  lord  to  protect  his  rights  in 
the  French  provinces,  and  King  Philip  put  an  army  at  Ar- 
thur's disposal. 

In  the  war  which  followed,  Arthur  laid  siege  to  a  castle  in 
Poitou  where  Queen  Eleanor  was  living.  Though  she  had 
been  John's  strongest  supporter,  Arthur  hoped  by  taking  her 
prisoner  to  secure  her  aid  for  himself.  But  John  suddenly 
appeared  and  raised  the  siege,  taking  Arthur  prisoner.  He 
shut  the  boy  up  in  Rouen  and,  it  is  said,  commanded  the 
jfailer  to  put  out  his  eyes,  but  Arthur's  pleadings  were  so  pitifu) 
that  he  was  spared.  A  short  time  after  this,  Arthur  disap- 


1214]  JOHN  91 

peared  and  was  never  seen  again.  The  tradition  is  'that  his 
uncle  came  to  see  him  one  night,  accompanied  by  his  squire, 
and  that  the)"  took  the  boy  out  in  a  boat  on  the  Seine,  and 
there  murdered  him  and  sank  his  body  in  the  river. 

Whether  John  committed  the  murder  or  not,  Philip  accused 
him  of  it,  and  summoned  him  to  Paris  to  answer  for  the 
death  of  his  vassal.  According  to  the  feudal  law,  as  John 
and  Arthur  were  both  his  vassals,  so  far  as  their  French 
provinces  were  concerned,  Philip  had  a  right  to  try  John  in 
his  own  court.  As  John  refused  to  appear,  Philip  declared  his 
estates  forfeited  and  immediately  took  possession  of  Anjou, 
Normandy,  and  the  other  provinces  north  of  the  Loire  which 
had  belonged  to  the  English  king. 

When  the  news  was  brought  to  John  that  Philip  was  tak- 
ing one  castle  after  another,  and  that  the  people  were  accept- 
ing his  rule,  he  said,  "  Let  them  go ;  by  and  by  I  will  recover 
in  a  day  what  they  have  taken  in  a  year."  By  and  by  he 
tried,  but  his  army  was  terribly  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Bouvines  in  Flanders.  By  that  battle  England  and  Nor- 
mandy became  separated.  Since  the  Norman  conquest,  there 
had  been  two  races  in  England,  Normans  and  English; 
henceforth  there  was  to  be  but  one.  There  had  been  two 
languages,  but  from  this  time  they  gradually  blend.  The 
proud  Norman  could  no  longer  point  to  the  despised  English 
as  a  conquered  race,  for  his  own  country  had  now  been  con- 
quered, and  he  must  call  himself  an  Englishman.  "  Thus 
the  two  races,  so  long  hostile,  found  at  last  that  they  had 
common  interests  and  common  enemies." 

Stephen  Langton.  John's  second  quarrel  concerned  the 
appointment  of  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  "We  have  seen 
that  when  this  important  place  became  vacant,  the  king  usu- 
ally selected  some  one  to  fill  it.  When  John  ordered  the 
monks  of  Canterbury  to  elect  his  treasurer,  the  Bishop  of  Nor- 
wich, they  secretly  chose  one  of  their  own  number,  their  sub- 


92  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1205 

prior  Eeginald,  and  sent  him  off  to  Eome  to  be  confirmed  by 
the  Pope.  He  began  to  chatter  about  his  new  dignity,  how- 
ever, as  soon  as  he  had  crossed  the  Channel,  and  the  action 
of  the  monks  came  to  the  ears  of  John.  In  a  great  rage  he 
compelled  them  to  elect  his  own  candidate. 

It  happened  that  the  papal  throne  was  occupied  at  this  time 
by  one  of  the  wisest  and  greatest  of  the  Popes,  Innocent  III. 
He  declared  both  elections  void,  and  by  his  advice  the  monks 
elected  a  learned  and  pious  Englishman,  then  at  Eome,  Stephen 
Langton,  whom  John  highly  esteemed. 

But  John  refused  to  allow  Langton  to  land  in  England, 
and  began  to  plunder  the  monks.  He  drove  them  out  of  the 
convent  with  armed  men  and  compelled  them  to  leave  the 
country.  Innocent  then  laid  England  under  an  interdict; 
that  is  to  say,  he  forbade  the  clergy  to  perform  any  church 
service.  When  the  appointed  day  came  the  churches  were 
instantly  closed.  No  marriage  service  could  be  performed, 
and  the  dead  had  to  be  buried  without  a  prayer  in  unhallowed 
ground.  The  sudden  cutting  off  of  all  forms  of  religion 
filled  the  people  with  horror.  Deprivation  of  the  public  ex- 
ercises of  religion  and  of  consecrated  burial  meant  shutting 
against  them  the  gate  of  heaven.  John,  however,  was  ap- 
parently content  to  stay  out  of  heaven  anyway,  and  he  took 
especial  pleasure  in  confiscating  the  property  of  all  the  clergy 
who  obeyed  the  interdict. 

When  the  interdict  had  lasted  a  year  the  Pope  excommuni- 
cated the  king.  This  deprived  him  of  all  connection  with 
the  church  and  forbade  all  pious  persons  to  associate  with  him. 
As  John  treated  the  excommunication  with  as  much  con- 
tempt as  the  interdict,  Innocent  threatened  to  declare  his 
throne  vacant,  to  absolve  his  subjects  from  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance, and  to  give  his  kingdom  to  Philip  the  King  of 
France.  Philip  quickly  gathered  an  army  to  make  good  his 
claim. 


1214J  JOHN  93 

The  situation  threw  John  into  a  panic  of  fear.  He  knelt 
at  the  feet  of  the  Pope's  legate  and  took  the  crown  from  his 
head.  By' this  act  he  gave  his  kingdom  to  the  Pope.  He 
then  took  the  same  oath  to  the  Pope  that  vassals  took  to 
their  lords,  and  received  his  crown  again,  on  condition  that 
he  pay  to  the  Pope  annually  the  sum  of  one  thousand  marks. 
He  was  no  longer  a  sovereign,  but  a  vassal.  Langton  was 
received  as  archbishop,  the  property  of  the  monks  was  re- 
stored, and  Philip,  who  had  already  met  defeat  off  the  coast 
of  Flanders,  gave  up  his  idea  of  invasion. 

The  Great  Charter.  It  was  just  after  these  events  that 
John  tried  to  regain  his  French  provinces  north  of  the  Loire, 
and  lost  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (1214).  After  this  failure 
he  brought  to  England  soldiers  hired  in  France,  determined 
to  master  the  barons  who  had  refused  to  fight  for  him,  and 
who  were  making  plans,  under  the  direction  of  Stephen  Lang- 
ton,  to  protect  the  English  people  against  the  king.  For 
John  not  only  took  away  the  property  of  his  subjects  by  force, 
but  got  rid  of  his  opponents  by  poison  and  secret  assassina- 
tion. No  man's  life  was  safe.  Many  were  thrown  into  dun- 
geons and  left  to  starve,  never  being  brought  to  trial  for 
their  pretended  offenses. 

Once  he  sent  to  demand  the  children  of  a  Sussex  baron, 
William  of  Braose,  as  hostages.  But  the  baron's  wifa  said, 
"  He  did  not  take  such  good  care  of  his  nephew  that  I  should 
want  to  entrust  my  children  to  him."  For  this,  she  and  her 
children  were  put  in  prison  and  left  to  die  of  hunger.  He 
once  demanded  a  large  sum  of  money  from  a  rich  Jew,  and 
when  refused,  he  locked  up  the  Jew  and  ordered  one  of  his 
teeth  to  be  pulled  out  each  day.  After  losing  seven,  the  Jew 
paid  the  money. 

In  1213  it  was  proposed  to  the  barons  that  John  be 
asked  to  reissue  the  charter  given  by  Henry  I.  Tbe  next 
year  the  barons  met  in  the  church  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  in 


94 


THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1214 


Suffolk,  and  one  by  one  they  swore  at  the  altar  that  if  the 
king  did  not  grant  the  charter  they  would  begin  war  against 
him. 

When  the  charter  was  presented  to  the  king  by  a  large 
number  of  barons,  he  turned  pale  and  trembled  as  he  looked 
into  the  stern  and  resolute  faces  before  him.  "  Give  me  till 
Easter  to  think  about  this,"  he  said.  The  barons  understood 
him,  and  when  they  presented  the  charter  again,  at  Oxford, 
they  had  two  thousand  armed  knights  at  their  back.  Langton 
read  aloud  the  demands  of  the  people,  which  ended  with  the 


THE  BABONS  TAKING  OATH  AGAINST  JOHN. 

sentence :    "And  if  these  claims  are  not  immediately  granted, 
our  arms  shall  do  us  justice." 

John   angrily  refused  the  charter.     The  barons   at  once 
levied  war  against  the  king,  calling  themselves  "the  army 


1215]  JOHN  95 

of  God  and  of  the  Holy  Church."  Eobert  FitzWalter  was 
elected  commander,  and  London  opened  her  gates  to  the 
army.  When  John  saw  that  further  delay  meant  the  loss  of 
his  crown,  he  asked  the  leaders  to  name  a  day  and  place 
where  he  could  meet  them. 

"  Let  the  day,"  they  replied,  "  be  the  loth  of  June  and  the 
place  Runnymede."  And  there  on  the  Thames  near  London 
the  nobility  of  England  and  the  representatives  of  the  peo- 
ple met  the  king  with  a  few  followers,  and  compelled  him  to 
sign  the  Great  Charter,  or  Magna  Charta,  which  became  the 
foundation  stone  of  English  liberty.  Besides  the  provisions 
of  Henry's  charter  it  contained  many  new  ones,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  life,  liberty,  and  property.  It  has  been  confirmed 
by  more  than  thirty  kings  and  parliaments  since  that  time, 
and  is  still  considered  the  most  important  document  in  the 
history  of  the  English  people. 

Provisions  of  the  Charter.  In  the  charter  the  king; 
agrees  to  levy  no  tax  without  the  consent  of  a  general  council 
of  the  kingdom.  "  Xo  freeman,"  it  declares,  "  shall  be  taken 
or  imprisoned  or  deprived  of  his  property,  or  outlawed,  or 
banished,  or  in  any  way  destroyed,  nor  will  we  pass  upon 
him  or  send  upon  him,  unless  by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his 
peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land.  We  will  sell  to  no  man,  nor 
will  we  deny  to  any  man  either  justice  or  right."  These  two 
are  the  most  famous  sentences  in  the  Great  Charter,  and  their 
meaning  is  this :  The  King  of  England  was  henceforth  not 
to  take  the  people's  money,  nor  put  them  in  prison  and 
punish  them  as  John  had  done.  Such  things  could  be  done 
only  after  a  fair  trial  before  a  jury  of  their  fellow-countrymen. 
The  king  was  bound  .to  obey  the  law  as  much  as  the  humblest 
subject. 

Final  Troubles  and  Death  of  John.  The  king  had  no 
mind  to  live  up  to  such  principles  as  these.  He  appealed 
to  the  Pope,  who  issued  an  order  declaring  the  charter  of 


96  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1215 

no  effect.  He  also  pronounced  the  curse  of  the  church 
against  the  barons  and  suspended  Langton  from  his  office  for 
taking  part  in  the  matter.  The  charter  said  that  John 
should  dismiss  his  hired  troops,  but  as  soon  as  he  got  away 
from  Kunnymede  he  hired  more  and  set  out  into  the  north 
of  England  to  punish  the  barons  who  had  led  the  movement 
against  him.  And  the  barons  did  not  suffer  alone.  Never 
since  the  days  of  the  Conqueror  were  such  horrors  known  in 
England.  Tne  people  were  murdered,  tortured,  and  plun- 
dered. Castles,  cities,  and  even  the  humble  homes  of  the 
poor  were  burned.  In  the  morning,  John  himself  applied 
the  torch  to  the  home  where  he  had  slept  at  night. 

The  barons  had  in  the  mean  time  invited  the  King  of 
France  to  come  to  their  help  with  an  army,  promising  in  re- 
turn the  crown  of  England  to  his  son  Louis.  Louis  came 
and  laid  siege  to  some  castles  held  by  the  retainers  of  John, 
when  suddenly  matters  were  brought  to  a  standstill  by  the 
death  of  the  king.  As  his  army,  in  its  career  of  murder  and 
plunder,  was  crossing  the  Wash,  the  tide  suddenly  rose  and 
carried  away  his  baggage,  including  a  large  amount  of  money. 
His  rage  at  this  misfortune  made  him  ill,  and  a  few  days 
later  he  died. 

Henry  III.,  1216-1272. 

The  People  and  the  Barons  fought  together  against  King 
John.  Under  the  early  Norman  kings  we  have  seen  the 
people  fighting  against  the  barons.  But  now  that  the  king 
had  grown  strong  enough  to  oppress  both  the  barons  and  the 
people,  we  find  the  last  two  combining  their  powers  against 
a  wicked  king.  The  situation  must  have  been  desperate  in- 
deed when  they  were  willing  to  accept  a  French  king.  But 
when  they  saw  that  it  was  the  purpose  of  Louis  to  take  away 
their  estates  and  give  them  to  his  French  followers,  they 
gave  the  crown  to  Henry,  the  nine-year-old  son  of  John. 


1233] 


HENRY   III. 


97 


Henry's  Guardians.  As  Henry  III.  was  under  age  the 
kingdom  was  put  under  the  care  of  a  guardian  chosen  by 
the  Great  Council.  The  French  were  driven  from  the  coun- 
try, and  the  charter  was  reissued  in  a  form  which  left  out  the 
provision  that  the  king  could  levy  a  general  tax  only  by  the 
consent  of  the  council. 

After  the  first  guardian's  death,  Hubert  de  Burgh  became 
the  chief  power  in  England.  His  great  work  was  in  driving 
out  the  foreign  soldiers 
that  John  had  brought 
in  from  France,  and  to 
whom  he  had  given 
large  estates.  Hu- 
bert's motto  was 
"  England  for  the 
English/'  Henry,  who 
became  of  age  about 
this  time,  favored  the 
French,  and  had  Hu- 
bert put  in  prison. 

Henry's  Government.  Henry  reminds  us  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  in  his  liking  for  foreigners.  His  wife  was  a 
French  lady,  and  as  his  mother  also  was  French,  it  took  a 
large  number  of  estates,  castles,  and  lordships  to  supply  all 
their  relatives  that  came  swarming  over  to  England.  Only 
a  few  leavings  remained  for  the  Englishmen  themselves.  To 
add  to  the  troubles,  the  Pope,  as  feudal  lord,  levied  heavy 
taxes  upon  the  laity  and  the  clergy  to  carry  on  his  long  strug- 
gle with  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 

As  soon  as  Henry  was  freed  from  the  restraints  of  his 
guardians,  he  began  the  old  practice  of  taxing  the  people 
without  consulting  their  willingness  in  the  matter.  Unlike 
the  kings  who  came  before  him,  he  lived  at  peace  with  the 
church.  He  rebuilt  Westminster  Abbey  as  it  is  to-day.  He 


WESTMINSTER   ABBEY. 


98  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1258 

built  the  cathedral  at  Salisbury  and  one  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  other  churches  and  convents  in  various  places  through- 
out England.  His  extravagance  at  home  and  his  lavish  ex- 
penditures on  foreigners,  however,  at  last  drove  his  people  to 
revolt. 

Provisions  of  Oxford.  In  1258  there  was  a  failure  of 
crops  in  the  land,  owing  to  continued  heavy  rains.  Many 
thousands  of  people  died  of  starvation.  In  the  midst  of  the 
general  distress,  came  a  demand  from  the  Pope  for  130,000 
marks  for  sustaining  the  cause  of  Henry's  son  Edmund  in  Sicily. 
When  the  king  entered  the  Great  Council,  or  Parliament, 
which  had  been  called  to  Westminster  to  consider  the  condi- 
tion of  the  realm,  there  was  an  ominous  clatter  of  swords, 
He  looked  timidly  around  and  asked,  "  Am  I  a  prisoner  ?  " 

"  No,  sir,"  said  Eoger  Bigod,  "  but  your  extravagance  and 
your  foreign  favorites  have  brought  misery  upon  the  country,, 
and  we  demand  reform." 

This  Parliament  drew  up  a  series  of  resolutions  which  were 
known  as  the  Provisions  of  Oxford.  The  chief  feature  of 
these  was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of  the  barons  to 
supervise  the  actions  of  the  king.  The  Pope  complicated 
matters  by  declaring  the  Provisions  null  and  void,  and  releas- 
ing the  king  from  his  oath  to  observe  them.  The  whole  dis- 
pute was  then  referred  to  Louis  IX.  of  France,  who  decided 
in  favor  of  the  king.  The  barons,  however,  refused  to  accept 
the  decision,  and  both  sides  prepared  to  settle  the  dispute  by 
open  war. 

At  Lewes  the  king's  army  was  surprised  by  the  barons. 
Though  Prince  Edward  defeated  a  section  of  the  barons' 
army,  the  barons  carried  the  day,  and  captured  both  the  king 
and  the  prince. 

Simon  de  Montfort  was  the  leader  in  this  Barons'  War. 
He  was  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  but  had  inherited  an  earldom 
in  England  through  his  mother,  and  had  become  the  most 


1265]  HENRY  III.  99 

English  of  Englishmen.  He  was  a  soldier  and  statesman  of 
the  highest  order,  and  was  popularly  known,  on  account  of 
his  strict  justice  and  moral  worth,  as  "  Sir  Simon  the  Right- 
eous." Henry  stood  in  mortal  terror  of  Earl  Simon.  Once 
when  he  was  rowing  on  the  Thames  in  his  pleasure  barge,  a 
thunderstorm  came  on.  The  king,  who  was  dreadfully  afraid, 
took  refuge  in  a  garden  along  the  river,  where  he  was  met  by 
de  Montfort. 

"  Why  do  you  fear  ? "  asked  the  earl  of  the  trembling 
king.  "  The  storm  has  passed  over." 

The  king  replied,  "I  fear  thunder  and  lightning  beyond 
measure,  but  I  am  more  afraid  of  you  than  of  anything  else 
in  the  world." 

Some  of  the  barons  had  fought  against  the  king  for  self- 
ish reasons,  but  Simon  insisted  that  all  the  people  should  be 
represented  in  the  government,  so  that  whatever  was  done  in 
Parliament  would  receive  the  support  of  the  whole  nation. 

De  Montfort's  Parliament  was  called  in  1265,  the  year 
after  the  battle  of  Lewes.  Writs  were  issued  to  certain  cities 
and  boroughs,  asking  each  of  them  to  send  two  representatives, 
and  two  knights  were  sent  from  each  shire.  These,  together 
with  the  bishops  and  barons,  made  the  English  Parliament 
complete.  This  Parliament  did  no  work  of  importance,  but 
the  people  had  been  taught  by  Simon  the  manner  in  which 
they  might  exercise  their  power,  an  important  matter  in  time 
of  need. 

Evesham.  But  the  king's  supporters  had  not  laid  down 
their  arms.  Many  barons  were  afraid  that  Simon  was  getting 
too  much  power.  What  they  wanted  was  a  forceful  and 
patriotic  king  who  could  rule  by  himself,  and  not  a  king  ruled 
by  Sir  Simon,  be  he  ever  so  righteous.  Prince  Edward  had 
been  held  as  a  hostage  after  the  battle  of  Lewes,  but  he 
escaped  from  his  guardians.  Joining  his  forces  to  those  of 
the  dissatisfied  barons,  he  attacked  Simon's  party  at  a  dis- 


100  THE  EARLY  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1265 

advantage  at  Evesham  and  utterly  defeated  it.  When  the 
earl  saw  the  great  array  led  by  the  prince,  he  said,  "  They  are 
approaching  with  wisdom ;  let  us  therefore  commend  our  souls 
to  God,  for  our  bodies  are  Edward's."  He  asked  no  quarter, 
but  died  with  his  son,  sword  in  hand,  in  a  little  valley  where 
the  carnage  was  thickest. 

General  Progress  in  the  Time  of  Henry  III.  Henry's 
taste  for  the  fine  arts  led  to  a  great  improvement  in  English 
architecture.  The  heavy,  massive  style  of  the  Norman  castle 
with  its  round  arches  and  prison-like  exterior  gave  place  to 
the  Gothic  style,  characterized  by  the  pointed  arch,  tapering 
spires,  and  stained  glass  windows,  giving  to  the  whole  struc- 
ture a  graceful  and  lofty  appearance.  The  century  in  which 
Henry  lived  was  famous  throughout  Europe  as  an  age  of 
architecture.  The  building  trades  were  organized  into  guilds, 
or  societies,  which  gave  the  greatest  attention  to  training  their 
apprentices  into  finished  workmen. 

The  Friars  and  their  Charitable  Work.  It  was  in 
Henry's  reign  that  Mendicant  or  Begging  Friars,  followers  of 
Saint  Francis  and  Saint  Dominic,  came  to  England.  Most 
of  the  earlier  monks  had  shut  themselves  up  in  convents, 
where  they  devoted  themselves  to  learning  and  to  the  salvation 
of  their  own  souls;  but  these  new  brothers  went  among  the 
humblest  people,  tending  the  sick,  teaching  the  ignorant,  and 
reforming  the  vile.  They  did  a  splendid  work  in  spreading 
intelligence  among  the  lowest  classes. 

Language  and  Literature.  For  a  century  and  a  half 
after  the  Norman  conquest,  the  English  tongue  was  a  despised 
language  and  was  not  used  in  writing.  But  in  the  thirteenth 
century  it  began  to  come  into  use  again,  and  a  number  of 
short  songs  and  ballads  and  two  longer  poems  were  written. 
The  first  of  the  longer  poems  was  a  history  of  England  called 
the  "Brut,"  from  Brutus,  the  supposed  founder  of  Britain, 
written  by  Layamon,  a  priest.  The  second  was  the  "  Ormu- 


1278]  HENRY  III.  101 

lum,"  an  arrangement  in  verse  of  parts  of  the  ISTew  Testament. 
The  following  are  the  first  two  lines  of  the  "  Ormulum" : 

"  Thiss  boc  iss  nemmned  Ornnulum 

Forrthi  that  Orrm  itt  wrohhte." 
(This  book  is  named  Ormulum,  for  the  reason  that  Orm  wrote  it.) 

Roger  Bacon  was  a  Franciscan  monk  who  lived  at  Oxford, 
devoting  his  time  to  the  study  of  science.  He  knew  how  to 
make  gunpowder  and  predicted  steamboats,  locomotives,  air- 
ships, telescopes,  and  suspension  bridges.  His  experiments  and 
discoveries  were  so  wonderful  that  he  was  accused  of  receiving 
the  aid  of  the  devil,  and  was  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon  for  ten 
years.  People  were  not  allowed  to  read  his  writings  until  long 
after  his  death. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  three  quarrels  make   up   the  story  of  John's   reign?     How 

did  each  end? 

2.  How   did   the   loss   of   the   French  provinces  affect   the   people   of 

England? 

3.  Why  did  the  people  gain  power  in  the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry 

III.? 

4.  What  did   Hubert  de  Burgh  and   Simon  de  Montfort  do  for  the 

people?     What  rights  did  the  Great  Charter  secure  to  them? 

5.  -Describe  the  effects  of  interdict  and  of  excommunication. 

G.  Name  some  good  and  some  bad  features  of  Henry  III.'s  reign. 
7.    Compare  the  work  of  the  Friars  with  that  of  the  older  orders  of 
monks. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  GREAT  CHARTER.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  122-132. 

2.  PRINCE  ARTHUR.     Shakspeare,  King  John. 

3.  SIR  SIMOX  THE  RIGHTEOUS.     Green,  Short  History  (see  index). 

4.  THE  BUACK  AND  GRAY  FRIARS.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.   147- 

152 :  Guest  and  Underwood,  Handbook  of  English  History,  pp. 
212-215 


V.    THE  LATEE  PLANTAGENET  KINGS.1 

A.    THE  WAKS  WITH  SCOTLAND. 
Edward  I.,  1272-1307. 

The  Greatest  of  the  Plantagenets,  Edward  I.,  born  in 
1239,  was  a  grown-up  man  when  he  became  king.  He  was 
tall  and  commanding  in  appearance,  a  superb  horseman,  and 
accomplished  in  the  use  of  weapons.  But  more  than  this,  he 
was  wise  and  prudent  in  his  actions,  seldom  lost  control 
of  his  temper,  and  was  faithful  to  his  family,  his  friends,  and 
his  people.  His  wife,  Eleanor,  the  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Castile,  accompanied  him  on  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land. 
Edward  became  such  a  terror  to  the  Saracens  that  an  attempt 
was  made  to  get  rid  of  him  by  assassination.  A  Moslem 
fanatic  gained  access  to  his  tent,  and  suddenly  stabbed  him 
in  the  arm  with  a  poisoned  dagger.  The  prince  struck  the 
would-be  murderer  dead,  and  Eleanor  sucked  the  poison  from 
the  wound  until  a  surgeon  could  be  found  to  dress  it. 

»THE  LATER  PLANTAGENETS. 
EDWARD  I.  (1272-1307)  (p.  75) 
EDWARD  II.  (1307-1327) 

EDWARD  III.    (1327-1377) 

I 


Edward, 
the  Black 
Prince 

RICHARD  II. 
(1377-1393) 

Lionel, 
Duke  of 
Clarence 

Phihppa 

Roger  Mo: 
|    Earl 

John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster 

1 

Edmund, 
Duke  of 
York 

Richard 
(p.  146) 

Henry   IV. 
(p.    133) 

rtimer, 

of  March 
^ 

John  Beaufort 
John  Beaufort 

Edmund,  Earl  of  March      Anne  Mortimer 
(p.  146) 
102 


1279]  EDTVARD  I.  103 

Edward  and  Eleanor  were  greatly  beloved  by  their  people. 
When  the  queen  died,  her  body  was  brought  to  Westminster 
for  burial.  At  every  halting  place  of  the  funeral  procession 
Edward  caused  to  be  set  up  a  richly  ornamented  cross,  that 
those  of  after  times  might  cherish  her  memory.  Three  of 
these  crosses,  one  of  which  is  Charing  Cross  in  London,  are 
still  preserved. 

Edward's  Policy.  Edward  had  slain  Earl  Simon  at  Eves- 
ham,  but  continued  his  policy  in  keeping  foreigners  out  of 
the  country  and  in  giving  all  classes  of  the  people  a  share  in 
the  government.  When  he  wanted  to  make  a  law  that  af- 
fected the  barons,  he  called  them  to  consult  about  it.  And 
so  with  the  farmers,  the  townsmen,  and  the  merchants.  In 
this  way  he  secured  many  excellent  laws  to  which  the  people 
gave  a  willing  obedience. 

Order  Restored.  The  civil  wars  in  the  time  of  Henry 
III.  had  left  the  land  infested  by  bands  of  robbers.  A  man's 
life  was  not  safe  if  he  traveled  alone,  and  even  the  walled 
towns  had  to  be  carefully  guarded.  Once,  at  the  time  of  a 
great  fair  in  Boston,  a  company  of  robbers  disguised  them- 
selves as  priests  and  gained  entrance  to  the  town.  In  the 
middle  of  the  night  they  attacked  and  murdered  all  who 
resisted  them,  and  got  away  with  an  immense .  amount  of 
plunder.  Edward  ordered  that  every  man  from  fifteen  to 
sixty  years  of  age  should  provide  himself  with  arms,  and  all 
were  bound  to  pursue  and  capture  lawbreakers.  The  trees 
and  bushes  were  cleared  away  from  the  sides  of  the  roads,  in 
order  that  travelers  might  not  be  waylaid  by  robbers,  and  the 
evils  left  by  the  former  reign  soon  passed  away. 

With  the  consent  of  Parliament,  a  higher  export  duty  was 
levied  on  wool  and  leather.  Another  law,  called  the  Statute 
of  Mortmain,  forbade  the  giving  of  any  land  to  the  church 
without  the  king's  consent.  Lands  belonging  to  the  church 
escaped  certain  feudal  dues  to  the  king,  such  as  reliefs  and 


104 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1276 


wardship.  The  church  now  owned  a  large  part  of  England; 
besides,  it  had  become  the  custom  for  some  landholders  to 
give  their  land  to  the  church  and  then  receive  it  back  again 
as  tenants  on  easy  terms,  simply  to  escape  these  dues. 

The  Rulers  of  Wales-  had,  since  the  time  of  Aihelstan 
and  Edgar,  acknowledged  the  English  king  as  overlord.  But 
Llewellyn,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  refused  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons to  attend  Edward's  coronation.  A.  fleet  and  an  army 

soon  obliged  Llew- 
ellyn to  submit.  Six 
years  later,  news  sud- 
denly came  that 
large  bands  of  Welsh 
had  attacked  the 
western  counties  and 
were  murdering  the 
people  and  carrying 
away  their  property. 
War  began  again  and 
was  pressed  vigorous- 
ly. Llewellyn  was  defeated  and  slain,  his  brother  David  was 
put  to  death  as  a  traitor,  and  Wales  was  annexed  to  England. 
The  Welsh  had  an  old  tradition  that  none  but  a  native-born 
prince  should  ever  rule  over  them.  While  Edward  and  his 
queen  were  living  at  the  castle  of  Carnarvon,  which  he  had 
built,  a  son  was  born  to  them.  The  king  showed  the  child 
to  the  people  as  their  prince ;  and  they  were  satisfied  to  accept 
him,  for  he  was  born  in  the  land  according  to  the  old  prophecy. 
The  prince  afterward  became  King  Edward  II.;  and  from 
that  time  on  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales  has  usually  been 
borne  by  the  heir  to  the  English  throne. 

Expulsion  of  the  Jews.  Shortly  after  the  conquest  of 
Wales,  the  king  by  a  royal  edict  expelled  all  the  Jews  from 
England.  They  were  the  money  lenders  of.  the  country  and 


CASTLE  OF  CARNARVON. 


1296]  EDWARD  I.  105 

were  useful  to  the  king  when  money  was  needed  quickly. 
The  Jews  had  been  shamefully  treated  in  England.  They 
were  under  the  special  protection  of  the  king,  but  the  kings 
" protected"  them  as  men  protect  cattle  which  they  fatten 
for  slaughter.  The  people  demanded  their  expulsion  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  usurers  and  extortioners.  About  six- 
teen thousand  of  them  left  the  country,  and  very  few  dared 
to  return.  Until  Cromwell's  time,  several  hundred  years 
later,  we  hear  no  more  about  Jews  in  England. 

Scottish  Wars  Begun.  The  year  after  the  conquest  of 
Wales,  the  King  of  Scotland  was  killed,  leaving  as  nearest 
heir  to  the  throne  a  granddaughter  whose  father  was  the 
King  of  Norway.  Edward  now  proposed  to  marry  his  son, 
Prince  Edward,  to  the  Maid  of  Norway,  hoping  in  this  way 
to  unite  England  and  Scotland.  The  Scots  agreed  to  this 
marriage ;  but  it  was  prevented  by  the  death  of  the  little  maid 
(she  was  only  seven  years  old)  on  the  voyage  to  Scotland. 

So  many  claimants  to  the  throne  of  Scotland  now  appeared, 
that  the  Scottish  nobles  agreed  to  let  Edward  select  from 
among  them  the  rightful  heir.  They  also  admitted  Edward's 
claim  that  the  Scottish  king  should  do  homage  to  him,  as 
Scottish  kings  had  unwillingly  done  a  few  times  to  the  Saxon 
and  Norman  kings  of  England.  Edward  chose  John  Baliol 
to  be  King  of  Scotland,  and  received  his  oath  of  fealty. 

It  was  the  right  of  any  man  who  had  lost  a  case  at  law  in 
a  vassal's  court  to  appeal  to  the  court  of  the  lord  to  review 
the  suit.  The  right  of  hearing  appeals  from  Scottish  courts 
had  never  been  insisted  on  by  the  English  kings;  but  Ed- 
ward now  demanded  this  right.  The  Scots  were  so  angry 
that  they  compelled  their  king  to  resist  at  the  cost  of  war. 
Edward  invaded  Scotland  with  a  strong  force,  defeated  and 
captured  Baliol  at  Dunbar  (map,  p.  106),  declared  the  king- 
dom forfeited,  and  placed  it  under  the  control  of  English 
governors. 


106 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1290 


8CM.E  OF  MILES 


SCOTLAND. 


The  Stone  of  Destiny.  At  Scone  was  kept  a  wonderful 
block  of  stone  on  which  the  kings  of  Scotland  always  sat 
when  they  were  crowned.  This  stone  was  said  to  be  the  very 
one  on  which  Jacob  rested  his  head  when,  in  his  dream,  he 


1297] 


EDWARD  I. 


107 


saw  the  angels  ascending  and  descending  a  ladder  let  down 
from  heaven.  Edward  now  took  it  away  to  Westminster  and 
placed  it  under  the  coronation  chair  of  the  kings  of  England, 
where  you  may  see  it  to-day. 

The  Model  Parliament  of  1295.  Two  years  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Scottish  war,  trouble  broke  out  between  Ed- 
ward's province  of  Gascony  in  the 
south  of  France  and  the  king  of 
that  country.  Having  two  serious 
wars  in  prospect.,  Edward  called 
together  a  full  Parliament  of  the 
realm.  As  he  said,  "  Any  measure 
that  concerns  the  whole  nation 
should  be  agreed  to  by  the  whole 
nation/'  This  Parliament  was  at- 
tended by  all  the  bishops,  abbots, 
earls,  and  barons,  besides  two 
knights  from  each  shire  and  two  _; 
burgesses,  or  citizens,  from  every 
important  borough,  or  town.  The 
clergy  of  each  cathedral  and  parish  also  sent  a  delegate. 
This  was  called  the  "Model  Parliament,"  and  is  important 
because  it  did  serve  as  a  model  for  later  Parliaments. 

This  Parliament  voted  taxes  to  carry  on  the  war.  The 
war  was  so  expensive  that  two  years  later  Edward  called  for 
more  money,  this  time  without  the  Parliament  voting  it. 

Confirmation  of  the  Charters.  Edward's  arbitrary  taxes 
alarmed  the  people.  The  barons  were  especially  offended,  and 
refused  to  go  with  Edward  to  fight  in  France.  When  the 
king  told  the  Earl  of  Norfolk  with  an  oath  that  "he  would 
either  go  or  hang,"  the  earl  replied  with  the  same  oath,  "  he 
would  neither  go  nor  hang."  The  clergy  and  nobles  now 
joined  hands  and  compelled  the  king  to  grant  a  "  confirma- 
tion "  of  the  previous  charters,  by  which  he  also  agreed  never 


CORONATION  CHAIR. 


108  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1297 

to  take  any  tax  from  the  whole  realm  without  the  consent  of 
Parliament. 

William  Wallace.  Among  the  Scots  who  quarreled  with 
their  English  governors  was  Sir  William  Wallace.  He  re- 
treated to  the  mountains  and  gathered  there  a  band  of  out- 
laws, which  soon  grew  into  an  army.  The  English  governors 
advanced  to  attack  him  at  the  end  of  a  bridge  crossing  the 
river  Forth  near  Stirling.  Wallace  waited  till  the  English 
were  half  across  the  bridge,  and  then  fell  upon  them  and 
defeated  them.  In  a  few  days  Wallace  was  master  of  Scotland 


SIB  WILLIAM  WALLACE'S  SWORD, 

and  had  begun  to  ravage  the  northern  English  counties. 

Falkirk.  Edward,  having  concluded  a  peace  with  France, 
returned  and  speedily  marched  against  Wallace,  coming  up 
with  him  at  Falkirk.  The  Scottish  army  consisted  of  foot> 
men  armed  with  long  pikes  or  spears.  They  were  drawn  up 
in  circles  to  oppose  the  cavalry  and  archers  of  the  English. 
The  English  "  long  bow "  and  "  cloth-yard  shaft "  were  at 
this  time  famous  throughout  Europe.  Every  village  green 
was  the  scene  of  archery  contests  on  festival  days.  The 
English  aim  was  true,  and,  with  "bowstring  drawn  to  the 
ear,"  the  effect  was  deadly.  The  king  ordered  the  archers 
to  concentrate  their  fire  upon  one  point  in  the  Scottish  ranks. 
A  great  gap  soon  appeared.  Into  this  charged  the  armored 
knights  with  lance  and  sword.  Many  brave  Scots  refused  to 
fly  and  grimly  died  where  they  stood.  Others  kept  up  the 
struggle  for  independence,  and  it  was  seven  years  before  Ed- 
ward was  able  to  join  Scotland  to  England.  Wallace  was 
betrayed  to  the  English  and  hanged  as  a  traitor. 


1307]  EDWARD  II.  109 

Robert  Bruce.  The  Scotch  did  not  want  the  rule  of 
Edward,  however  good  it  might  be,  and  they  determined  to 
manage  their  affairs  in  their  own  way.  A  new  leader  was 
soon  found  in  Eobert  Bruce,  grandson  of  John  Baliol's  chief 
rival  in  the  contest  for  the  Scottish  throne. 

When  King  Edward  heard  of  the  new  revolt,  he  vowed  to 
take  vengeance  upon  the  traitors.  But  though  many  of  the 
Scotch  leaders  were  seized  and  executed,  Bruce  himself  es- 
caped, hiding  in  the  caves  among  the  mountains.  Here  he 
remained;  and  though  hunted  with  bloodhounds,  and  often 
in  danger  of  capture,  he  waited  patiently  until  a  fitting  time 
should  come  for  renewing  the  struggle.  Before  the  year  had 
passed,  he  reappeared  in  Carrick,  his  home,  and  the  whole 
population  rose  at  once  to  join  him.  In  1307  Edward  again 
set  out  for  Scotland.  But  he  was  now  nearly  seventy  years 
old,  and,  worn  out  with  toil  and  strife,  he  fell  sick  and  died 
before  reaching  the  border. 

Edward  II.,  1307-1327. 

The  Reign  of  Edward  II.  showed  how  necessary  it  was 
to  the  peace  and  safety  of  England  to  have  a  strong  king. 
Edward's  wise  and  good  mother  had  died  when  he  was  six 
years  old,  leaving  him  to  be  brought  up  by  servants.  He 
grew  up  in  idleness,  caring  only  for  pleasure.  He  was  a 
vigorous  young  man  and  liked  to  ride  in  the  tournament  and 
the  chase,  but  as  for  the  work  of  governing  England,  Edward 
would  have  none  of  it.  'As  you  have  noticed  in  the  history 
of  England  so  far,  a  strong  king  has  often  been  followed  by  a 
weak  one.  In  one  way  this  was  an  advantage,  because  the 
people  had  to  keep  sharp  watch  of  the  king  and  his  govern- 
ment, and  were  gradually  educated  to  take  entire  charge  of  it. 

Piers  Gaveston,  Edward's  most  intimate  friend,  was  the 
son  of  a  favorite  old  Gascon  servant  of  his  father.  Piers  was 
a  clever,  witty  knight,  but  conceited,  insolent,  and  greedy  of 


110  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1307 

money.  Edward  I.  had  seen  the  bad  influence  of  this  man  on 
his  son  and  had  banished  him  from  the  country.  But  Ed- 
ward II.,  as  soon  as  his  father  died,  recalled  Gaveston  and 
made  him  Earl  of  Cornwall.  When  Edward  went  to  France 
to  marry,  Gaveston  was  left  in  charge  of  the  kingdom;  and 
on  Edward's  return  he  kept  Gaveston  in  power.  The  barons, 
smarting  under  their  humiliation,  insisted  on  his  banishment; 
but  Edward  soon  recalled  him. 

Bannockburn ;  Scotland  Independent.    The  old  king's  dy- 
ing injunction  to  his  ?on  was  to  finish  the  Scotch  war  himself, 


FIELD  OF  BANNOCKBURN. 

but  Edward  II.  appointed  a  new  governor  of  Scotland,  and 
Kent  away  to  his  court  in  the  south.  Robert  Bruce  improved 
his  opportunity.  Within  a  few  years  he  got  back  everything 
that  Edward  I.  had  taken  from  him,  and  laid  siege  to  Stirling, 
the  last  stronghold  of  the  English  across  the  border.  The 
garrison  there  agreed  to  surrender  if  not  relieved  by  midsum- 
mer, 1314.  This  news  at  last  roused  the  king,  and  he  led  an 
army  against  the  Scots. 


1314]  EDWARD  II.  Ill 

At  Bannockburn,  Bruce  made  preparation  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  English  by  digging  great  pits  in  front  of  his  army, 
in  which  he  placed  sharpened  stakes,  concealing  them  with  a 
covering  of  turf.  The  English  archers  as  usual  began  the 
battle,  but  they  were  poorly  supported,  and  were  driven  off 
by  the  Scottish  cavalry.  Then  an  English  charge  over  the  pit- 
falls threw  the  whole  English  army  into  confusion.  While  the 
knights  and  the  horses  were  floundering  about,  wounded  by 
the  sharp  stakes,  a  body  of  Scotch  servants  and  camp-followers 
appeared  over  the  brow  of  a  hill.  The  English,  taking  this 
for  a  reinforcement,  fled  in  haste,  pursued  by  the  Scots, 
who  overtook  and  slew  hundreds  in  their  flight.  After  this 
Bruce  had  everything  his  own  way,  and  a  few  years  later 
Edward  gave  up  the  attempt  to  reconquer  Scotland.  The 
Scots  honor  the  battle  of  Bannockburn  as  the  greatest  event 
in  their  history,  and  Bruce  as  the  savior  of  his  country. 
Robert  Burns,  the  chief  of  Scottish  poets,  wrote  "  B  race's  Ad- 
drees  to  his  Army  " : 

"  Scots,  wha  hae  wi'  Wallace  bled, 
Scots,    wham   Bruce   has   aften    led, 
Welcome  to  your  gory  bed, 
Or  to  glorious  victorie. 

"  Now's  the  day,  and  now's  the  hour ; 
See  the  front  of  battle  lower; 
See  approach  proud  Edward's  power  — 
Edward  !  chains  and  slaverie  ! 

"  Lay  the  proud  usurpers  low ! 
Tyrants  fall   in  every   foe ! 
Liberty's  in  every  blow ! 

Forward !  let  us  do,  or  die !  " 

The  Lords  Ordainers  were  a  committee  of  twenty-one 
barons  chosen  by  Parliament  in  1310  to  oversee  the  realm  and 
to  watch  the  actions  of  the  king.  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancas- 
ter, the  king's  cousin,  was  the  chief  man  among  them.  It 
need  scarcely  be  said  that  these  nobles  were  disliked  by  Ed- 


112  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1310 

ward,  who  was  greatly  amused  by  the  rude  names  that  Gaves- 
ton  bestowed  upon  them.  The  Earl  of  Warwick  was  "the 
Black  Dog,"  and  Lancaster  "  the  Old  Hog."  Warwick  vowed 
that  Gaveston  should  "  some  day  feel  the  Black  Dog's  teeth." 
When  Edward  refused  to  allow  his  favorite  to  remain  out  of 
England,  the  nobles  carried  him,  a  prisoner,  to  Warwick's 
castle,  where  he  was  put  to  death. 

For  twenty  years  after  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  the  his- 
tory of  England  consists  of  little  more  than  the  contests 
among  these  lords  for  power.  The  king,  who  had  adopted 
two  new  favorites,  named  Despenser,  father  and  son,  got  some 
of  the  barons  on  his  side,  attacked  the  Lancaster  party,  cap- 
tured the  earl,  and  had  him  executed. 

Deposition  and  Death  of  the  King.  Shortly  after  this, 
the  queen,  Isabella,  went  to  France.  While  there,  she  met 
one  Roger  Mortimer,  an  exiled  English  lord,  arid  with  him 
formed  a  plot  to  depose  her  husband.  Gathering  a  small 
army  in  France,  she  landed  on  the  coast  of  Suffolk.  The 
strongest  of  the  barons  of  England  joined  her,  while  King 
Edward,  almost  deserted,  fled  with  the  Despensers  and  a  few 
followers  towards  Wales.  Being  captured,  the  Despensers 
were  executed,  and  Edward  was  compelled  to  resign  the  crown 
in  favor  of  his  son.  He  was  imprisoned  in  Berkeley  castle, 
near  the  river  Severn,  where  he  was  cruelly  murdered  by  the 
command  of  Mortimer  and  Isabella. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  can   you   account   for   the   lawlessness   at    the   beginning   of 

Edward  I.'s  reign? 

2.  Why  was  Edward  asked  to  confirm  the  charters? 

3.  "What    led    to    the    conquest    of    Scotland?     Was    it   a    just    war? 

How  was  Scotland  lost? 

4.  Compare  the  government  of  Edward  II.  with  that  of  Edward  L 

5.  What  king  did   Edward   II.   resemble   in  character? 

6.  With   whom   may   Bruce   be   compared?     Why? 

7.  Compare  the  Parliaments  of  1265  and  1295. 


1333]  EDWAKD  III.  113 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  ROBERT   BRUCE.     Porter,    Scottish    Chiefs;    Henty,    In    Freedom's 

Cause. 

2.  BANNOCKBURN.     Porter,     Scottish     Chiefs;     Lansdale,     Scotland, 

Historic  and  Romantic,  Vols.  I.,  II. 

3.  EDWARD  II.  AND  PIERS   GAVESTON.     Dickens,  Child's  History   of 

England,  Ch.  XVII. 
5.  THE  HEART  OF  BRUCE.     Rolfe,  Tales  from  English  History. 


B.    BEGINNING  OF  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR. 

Edward  III.,  1327-1377. 
p* 
*  A  Regency  was  Appointed  to  govern  the  kingdom,  as 

Edward  III.  was  only  fourteen  years  old  at  the  death  of  his 
father ;  but  Mortimer  and  Queen  Isabella  had  the  real  power. 

England  had  never  fully  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
Scotland,  and  Bruce  now  invaded  and  plundered  the  northern 
counties  in  order  to  compel  her  to  do  so.  Mortimer  and  Ed- 
ward led  an  army  against  the  Scotch,  but  the  latter  had 
learned  the  folly  of  risking  everything  in  a  great  battle,  and 
were  so  rapid  in  their  movements  that  the  English  could  not 
come  up  with  them.  At  the  same  time  they  were  doing  a 
vast  amount  of  damage.  Mortimer  and  the  queen  made 
peace  by  giving  up  all  claim  to  the  crown  of  Scotland.  This 
defeat  made  Mortimer  and  the  regency  very  unpopular.  Ed- 
ward resolved  to  take  control  of  the  government.  Though 
only  eighteen  years  old,  he  was  already  married  to  Philippa 
of  Hainault,  a  Flemish  lady,  and  had  a  son.  He  gathered 
a  company  of  Mortimer's  enemies  and  captured  him  and  Isa- 
bella at  Nottingham,  by  entering  the  castle  through  a  secret 
passage  cut  through  the  rock  on  which  it  was  built.  Mor- 
timer was  hanged,  and  the  queen  was  placed  in  a  private 
castle  and  allowed  no  further  part  in  the  government. 

War  with  Scotland.  Edward  refused  to  keep  Mortimer's 
treaty  with  Eobert  Bruce.  He  invaded  Scotland,  defeated 
the  king,  David  Bruce,  at  Halidon  Hill,  and  placed  his  vassal, 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1333 


MEDITERRANEAN 
SEA 


FEANCB  IN  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAB. 

Edward  Baliol,  upon  the  throne.    Bruce  fled  to  Prance,  but 
was  soon  restored  by  the  Scots. 

The  Hundred  Years'  War  now  began   (1337).     There 
were  several  causes  for  this  long  and  bitter  struggle. 


1340] 


EDWARD  III. 


115 


In  the  first  place,  it  had  become  the  settled  policy  of  the 
French  kings  to  get  full  control  of  all  the  provinces  of  France, 
and  the  English  king's  territories  in  the  south  were  con- 
tinually being  stirred  up  to  rebellion. 

Second,  the  French  king,  Philip  VI.,  made  an  alliance  with 
the  Scots  against  England. 

A  third  cause  was  the  relation  of  Flanders  to  England. 
The  Flemish  cities  of  Ghent  and  Bruges  were  the  great  cen- 
ters of  cloth  manufac- 
turing in  those  days. 
There  was  little  man- 
ufacturing in  Eng- 
land. A  large  part 
of  the  country  con- 
sisted of  great  open 
tracts,  where  herds  of 
sheep  and  cattle  were 
pastured.  The  wool  FLEMISH  Loon, 

was  sent  to  Flanders  and  made  into  cloth,  much  of  which 
was  bought  back  by  England.  Edward's  marriage  with 
Philippa  was  intended  to  strengthen  the  friendly  relations 
between  England  and  Flanders.  The  French  king  was 
anxious  to  control  the  Flemish  provinces.  If  he  succeeded, 
their  trade  relations  with  England  would  be  broken  off,  and 
English  farmers  and  merchants  would  suffer. 

Edward's  Claim  to  the  French  Crown  was  another  cause 
of  this  long  war.  His  mother,  Isabella,  was  the  sister 
of  the  last  king,  wnile  Philip  VI.  was  only  a  cousin.  The 
French  claimed  that,  according  to  the  Salic  law,  no  woman 
could  either  rule  in  France  or  transmit  the  crown  to  her  son. 

The  Flemish  people  joined  King  Edward,  for  they  hated 
the  idea  of  French  rule.  But  he  soon  found  that  they  were 
ready  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  war  only  when  well  paid 
for  it.  Some  of  them  had  scruples  in  fighting  against  their 


116  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1340 

feudal  lord,  the  King  of  France,  and  it  was  to  satisfy  them 
that  Edward  took  that  title  himself,  and  placed  the  lilies  of 
France  in  his  coat  of  arms. 

Edward  having  returned  to  England  to  gather  supplies  for 
his  army,  Philip  collected  a  large  fleet  to  prevent  the  return 
of  the  English  ships.  Edward  found  the  French  fleet  at 
Sluys,  and  defeated  it  so  terribly  that  30,000  Frenchmen 
were  slain  or  drowned  (1340) .  The  disaster  was  made  known 
to  Philip  by  the  court  jester,  who  said,  "  What  cowards  those 
English  are;  they  had  not  the  courage  to  jump  overboard 
as  our  French  did !  " 

Crdcy.  The  next  important  campaign  was  in  1346.  Ed- 
ward ravaged  Normandy,  and  then  began  a  march  across 
France  to  join  his  allies  in  Flanders.  Philip  pursued,  and 
the  English  army  awaited  attack  at  Crecy,  where  was  fought 
one  of  the  famous  battles  of  English  history.  The  French 
army  consisted  mainly  of  mounted  knights,  clad  in  armor, 
who  fought  with  sword  and  lance. 
They  had  also  15,000  Genoese,  who 
fought  with  the  crossbow,  an  awkward 

O^M///]  "    *  weapon,  which  had  to  be  wound  up 
flisf/ii 


'  •";  "-. 


-^  w 

€& 


Ss&vU*? 


Crecy  * 


with  wheel  and  ratchet  to  set  the  string 
every  time  it  was  discharged.  The 
English  archers,  who  formed  the  main 
BATTLE  OF  CHECT.  body  of  Edward's  army,  had  long  ago 
discarded  the  Genoese  weapon  for  the  long  bow  and  heavy 
arrows  tipped  with  barbs  of  steel.  Long  practice  enabled 
them  to  use  this  weapon  with  fatal  effect  at  300  yards,  while 
at  close  range  the  knights'  armor  was  no  protection  against 
its  deadly  force. 

The  English  army  was  drawn  up  in  three  divisions.  Two 
divisions  formed  the  line  of  battle,  and  the  third  was  kept 
in  the  rear  as  a  reserve.  Edward  dismounted  his  knights 
and  placed  them  among  the  archers  with  leveled  spears. 


1347]  EDWARD  III.  117 

Philip  sent  the  Genoese  crossbowmen  forward  to  open  the 
battle,  but  a  heavy  rain  had  just  wet  their  bowstrings  and 
made  their  weapons  useless.  The  English,  who  had  leather 
cases  for  their  bows,  drove  them  back  with  a  flight  of 
arrows.  "  Kill  me  those  scoundrels !  "  cried  Philip,  who  took 
their  forced  retreat  for  cowardice.  '  The  French  knights 
charged  upon  the  poor  Genoese  and  cut  them  down  in  order 
to  clear  the  way  for  their  attack  upon  the  English.  On 
they  came  in  a  furious  assault,  each  trying  to  outride  the 
others,  in  order  to  be  in  the  van,  the  place  of  honor.  But  they 
went  down  by  thousands  before  the  archers  and  spearmen, 
while  the  Welsh  with  their  long  knives  went  over  the  field 
and  dispatched  those  who  were  wounded  or  entangled  by 
their  armor  or  horses.  King  Edward's  eldest  son,  the  Black 
Prince,  commanded  the  right  wing.  In  the  thick  of  the 
fight  a  messenger  came  to  Edward  for  assistance. 

"  Is  the  prince  dead  or  wounded  ?  "  asked  the  king. 

"  No,  sire ;  but  he  is  hard  pressed  and  needs  your  help." 

"Then,"  said  the  king,  "return  and  tell  those  who  sent 
you  not  to  send  again  while  my  son  lives.  Command  them  to 
let  the  boy  win  his  spurs !  " 

When  the  day  of  Crecy  was  over,  the  English  army  of 
about  30,000  had  completely  defeated  the  French  army  of 
100,000,  of  whom  nearly  a  third  were  left  dead  on  the  field. 

Calais.  The  Scotch,  according  to  their  agreement  with 
Philip,  now  invaded  England.  They  were  defeated  at  Nev- 
ille's Cross,  and  their  king,  David,  was  carried  off  to  London 
a  prisoner.  Meanwhile,  Edward  had  laid  siege  to  Calais. 
This  place  had  been  a  harbor  for  pirates  and  could  expect  no 
mercy.  The  town  was  stubbornly  defended,  and  yielded  only 
when  compelled  by  famine.  Edward  ordered  six  of  the 
leading  citizens  to  come  to  him  with  ropes  about  their  necks, 
intending  to  hang  them.  But  Queen  Philippa  begged  so 
earnestly  for  their  lives  that  the  king  released  them.  He  now 


118 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


[1347 


drove  the  Frenchmen  out  of  Calais  and  made  it  an  English 
colony.  It  became  an  important  port  for  trade  between  Eng- 
land and  the  continent  and  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
English  for  more  than  two  hundred  years. 

The  Black  Death,  in  1348,  brought  about  a  long  truce. 
This  terrible  pestilence  swept  over  Europe,  killing  more  than 
half  of  the  population.  England,  on  the  victorious  return 

^^"r'T^^k^  °^    ^e    king,    had 

given  itself  up  to 
festivities  and  re- 
joicing. Edward 
had  established  the 
"  Order  of  the  Gar- 
ter," imitating 
King  Arthur's 
Knights  of  the 
Bound  Table.  Gor- 
geous tournaments 
were  held,  attended 
by  the  victorious 
chivalry  of  Eng- 
land and  gay  ladies 
in  luxurious  attire. 
In  the  midst  of  this 
gayety,  the  plague 
appeared.  Both 
man  and  beast  were 
attacked.  In  some 
districts  the  earth 
was  strewn  with 
the  dead  bodies  of 

ADMISSION  INTO  THE  ORDER  OF  THE   GARTER.    cattle?  horses,  sheep, 

and  human  beings.  Toward  the  end  of  1349,  the  plague 
subsided,  but  it  appeared  twice  again  within  twenty  years; 


1349]  EDWARD  III.  119 

and  it  was  two  centuries  before  the  population  increased 
again  to  what  it  had  been. 

Effects  of  the  Plague  on  Labor.  Under  the  Saxon  kings 
there  had  been  few  slaves  and  many  freemen ;  but  the  Norman 
conquerors  had  forced  both  classes  alike  into  a  state  of  bond- 
age, which,  while  higher  than  that  of  the  Saxon  thrall,  was 
far  below  that  of  the  Saxon  churl.  This  form  of  servitude 
was  later  called  "  villenage,"  and  the  bondmen,  "  villeins." 
Thus  actual  slavery  died  out  soon  after  the  conquest,  and 
the  word  slave,  in  the  sense  of  a  person  who  could  be  bought 
and  sold  at  the  pleasure  of  the  master,  ceased  to  be  used. 
The  Saxon  "  vill "  became  the  Norman  "  manor."  The 
lord  of  the  manor,  after  reserving  one  third  of  the  land 
for  his  own  use,  divided  the  rest  among  his  villeins,  who  lived, 
each  in- his  own  cottage,  on  his  own  plot  of  ground.  The 
villein  was  obliged  to  work  for  his  lord  several  days  each 
week,  and  to  furnish  supplies  of  grain,  meat,  and  poultry  for 
his  lord's  use.  He  could  not  acquire  any  property  of  his 
own,  and,  if  the  land  changed  hands  in  any  way,  the  villeins 
went  with  it.  They  were  not  allowed  to  leave  the  manor,  and 
their  children  remained  in  the  same  condition  as  them- 
selves. But  after  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  the  manorial  system 
and  villenage  underwent  a  change.  The  lord  found  it  more 
profitable  to  pay  his  villeins  wages  and  charge  them  a  rent 
for  the  land.  Many  villeins  escaped  to  the  towns,  where,  if 
they  remained  unclaimed  for  a  year  and  a  day,  they  became 
free. 

When  the  black  death  had  swept  away  about  half  the  labor- 
ing population,  the  remaining  half  naturally  demanded  more 
money  for  their  work.  The  landlords  would  not  pay  any 
more.  As  the  villeins,  or  laboring  class,  as  we  must  now  call 
them,  had  no  power  in  Parliament,  the  landholders  passed  a 
law  called  the  "  Statute  of  Laborers."  This  law  forbade  any 
laborer  to  ask  for  more  wages  than  he  had  received  before 


120 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS. 


[1349 


the  plague.  When  the  peasants  refused  to  work,  the  lords 
attempted  to  restore  the  old  condition  of  villenage,  which 
had  not  entirely  died  out.  Where  this  was  attempted  the 
villeins  ran  away,  and  looked  for  work  in  other  places  where 
they  could  receive  wages  like  free  men.  Many  of  them  be- 
came mechanics  and  tradesmen  'in  the  neighboring  towns.  J 

The  War  with  France  was  Renewed  (1355).  Edward 
offered  to  make  peace  if  King  John,  who  had  succeeded  Philip, 
would  give  him  the  full  sovereignty  of  Aquitaine;  but  John 
refused  to  do  this.  In  1355,  the  Black  Prince  led  a  plunder- 
ing expedition  through  southern  France.  The  next  year  he 
started  out  again  from  Bordeaux,  swept  through  central 
France,  and  started  to  return  with  8,000  men  guarding  his 
load  of  plunder.  When  near  Poitiers,  south  of  the  Loire, 
he  was  overtaken  by  King  John  with 
50,000  Frenchmen.  With  the  exception 
that  John  dismounted  the  greater  part 
of  his  knights,  the  tactics  of  Crecy  were 
repeated,  with  results  more  disastrous  to 
the  French.  The  English  were  drawn 
up  on  both  sides  of  a  long  lane,  behind 
hedges  which  protected  them.  As  the 
BATTLE  OF  POITIERS.  French  came  charging  down  the  lane, 
both  men  and  horses  were  shot  down  until  the  remainder 
stopped  and  fled  in  terror.  The  English  charged  upon  the 
fugitives,  and  attacked  the  French  reserve  force  both  in  front 
and  in  flank.  King  John  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the  battle 
was  won. 

France  was  mercilessly  plundered  by  the  French  nobles  in 
order  to  ransom  their  king  and  relatives,  whom  the  Black 
Prince  had  carried  off  to  England.  When  Edward  invaded 
the  land  again  he  found  no  men  to  defend  it,  nor  food  to 
feed  his  troops.  Once  his  army  was  overtaken  on  the  march 
by  a  terrific  thunderstorm.  The  king,  who  was  conscience- 


1375]  EDWARD  111.  121 

stricken  at  the  ruin  he  had  wrought,  thought  he  heard  the 
voice  of  God  telling  him  to  desist. 

In  1360  the  Peace  of  Bretigny  was  made,  by  which  Ed- 
ward gave  up  his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  and  received  full 
sovereignty  over  Gascony,  Guienne,  Aquitaine,  and  Calais. 
King  John  was  to  pay  a  huge  sum  for  his  ransom.  Three 
years  before  this  Edward  had  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  Scotland,  and  released  King  David  (p.  117)  on  the  promise 
to  pay  a  ransom  of  £60,000. 

Edward's  Last  War  with  France  was  caused  by  the 
refusal  of  Charles  V.,  who  had  succeeded  his  chivalrous  father, 
John,  to  stand  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny.  He  summoned  the 
Black  Prince,  who  was  now  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  to  Paris  to 
answer  for  his  misconduct  in  overtaxing  his  subjects.  "  Cer- 
tainly I  will  go,"  said  the  prince,  "with  helmet  on  head  and 
60,000  men  behind  me."  But  in  the  war  which  followed, 
Charles  was  wiser  than  his  father.  He  would  fight  no  battles, 
but  hung  upon  the  rear  of  the  enemy,  cut  off  stragglers,  and 
made  waste  the  country  through  which  the  army  of  the  prince 
had  to  pass.  The  baffled  prince,  who  had  treated  the  captive 
King  John  with  gentle  courtesy,  ordered  the  massacre  of 
3,000  men,  women,  and  children  who  had  surrendered  at  Li- 
moges. Yet  three  knights,  who  had  fought  to  the  last,  he 
spared.  The  prince's  brother,  John  of  Gaunt,  led  another 
army  into  France  from  Calais;  but  winter  came  on,  food 
failed,  and  cold  and  famine  did  the  work  that  the  French  king 
declined  to  attempt.  A  rabble  of  hungry  fugitives  was  all 
that  remained  of  the  fine  army  when  Bordeaux  was  reached. 
In  the  truce  made  in  1375,  the  English  were  forced  to  give 
up  all  their  French  provinces  except  a  few  cities  along  the 
coast. 

A  Dispute  about  the  Clergy  grew  up  in  the  latter  part 
of  Edward's  reign.  A  party  arose  which  favored  taking  away 
from  the  clergy  all  share  in  political  affairs,  md  depriving 


122  THE  LATER   PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1362 

chera  of  a  part  of  their  property.  This  movement,  which 
began  among  the  people,  was  aided  by  many  of  the  barons, 
especially  by  John  of  Gaunt,  who  had  become  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster 

John  Wyclif  was  sent  to  Bruges  to  negotiate  with  delegates 
of  the  Pope  concerning  the  papal  and  royal  claims  in  promo- 
tions to  offices  in  the  church.  Here  he  met  John  of  Gaunt. 
No  conclusion  was  reached  between  the  representatives  of  the 
Pope  and  the  king.  On  returning  to  England  Wyclif  was 
appointed  to  the  living  at  Lutterworth.  Wyclif  was  a  scholar, 
and  while  at  Oxford,  where  he  lectured  for  several  years,  he 
had  fiercely  opposed  the  Friars.  He  imitated  the  austerity  of 
the  Friars,  however,  and  went  about  barefoot  and  clad  in  a 
gown  of  the  coarsest  stuff.  His  opposition  to  the  Friars  he 
soon  extended  to  priests,  bishops,  and  even  the  Pope.  Against 
the  authority  of  the  bishops  he  organized  bands  of  "poor 
priests,"  as  he  called  them,  to  spread  his  doctrines.  Some  of 
these  were  that  sin  takes  away  from  man  all  his  property 
rights,  that  all  property  should  be  held  in  common,  and  that 
the  church  should  possess  nothing.  He  differed  with  the 
teaching  of  the  church  in  respect  to  the  Eucharist  and  mar- 
riage. To  those  able  to  read  he  appealed  by  teaching  the 
right  of  private  judgment  in  getting  the  meaning  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  for  this  purpose  he  made  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible.  The  Duke  of  Lancaster  took  Wyclif  under  his  protec- 
tion, but  the  Black  Prince  restored  some  of  the  clergy  ex- 
pelled by  the  Duke  and  drove  the  Duke  for  a  time  out  of  the 
King's  Council. 

Division  of  Parliament  into  Lords  and  Commons.  It 
had  come  about  that  the  knights  and  burgesses  had  separated 
themselves  from  the  lords  and  bishops  and  were  called  the 
Commons.  They  tried  to  keep  for  themselves  the  right  to 
vote  taxes,  while  the  lords  had  more  to  do  with  managing  the 
affairs  of  government.  In  the  dispute  over  the  clergy,  the 


1377]  EDWARD  III.  123 

Commons  sided  with  the  Black  Prince,  because  they  were 
disgusted  with  the  corrupt  rule  of  the  barons. 

Deaths  of  King  Edward  and  the  Black  Prince.  The 
prince  had  long  been  in  ill  health,  brought  on  by  his  wars  in 
France.  His  defense  of  the  clergy  (1376)  was  his  last  public 
act,  and  he  died  the  same  year.  His  son  Eichard  was  now 
considered  heir  to  the  throne. 

For  several  years  the  king  had  been  suffering  from  a  disease 
which  weakened  his  mind,  and  he  was  unable  to  take  part  in 
war  or  government.  A  woman  named  Alice  Ferrers  had  ob- 
tained great  influence  over  him,  and  had  persuaded  him  to 
give  his  consent  to  all  the  evil  plans  of  Lancaster  and  his 
followers.  She  was  banished  from  court  by  the  same  Par- 
liament that  restored  the  clergy  to  power ;  but  after  the  death 
of  the  prince,  both  she  and  Lancaster  returned.  The  next 
year  the  poor  old  king  died  also,  deserted  by  every  one. 


CHAUCER'S  CANTERBURY  PILGRIMS. 

The  "  Father  of  English  Poetry."  During  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  there  grew  up  at  his  court  a  young  squire,  named 
Geoffrey  Chaucer,  who  became  the  first  great  poet  to  write  in 
the  English  tongue.  Chaucer  was  a  soldier,  courtier,  diplo- 
mat, and  man  of  business.  He  was  as  well  acquainted  with 
the  life  of  the  people  as  he  was  with  that  of  the  court.  His 
great  poem  is  a  collection  of  stories  called  "  The  Canterbury 
Tales/'  He  tells  us  that  he  once  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  Thomas  at  Canterbury.  On  the  way  he  fell  in 


124  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1327 

with,  a  large  company  of  pilgrims,  and  they  all  set  out  together 
from  the  Tabard  Inn  in  Southwark  (southern  London). 
To  while  away  the  time,  it  was  agreed  that  each  one  should 
tell  two  tales  on  the  way  out  and  two  on  the  return.  In  all 
twenty-four  tales  were  told.  Among  the  story-tellers  were  a 
knight,  a  squire,  a  yeoman,  a  monk,  a  nun,  a  merchant,  a 
doctor,  and  others,  representing  every  class  of  society  and  em- 
ployment in  the  land. 

The  writings  of  Chaucer  and  Wyclif  show  us  that  the  peo- 
ple of  England  had  come  to  use  one  language,  the  English. 
A  great  many  French  words  were  mixed  with  it,  but  the  main 
part  is  made  up  of  the  same  language  that  Alfred  used.  The 
schools,  which  had  formerly  given  instruction  only  in  Latin 
and  French,  had  now  begun  to  teach  in  English.  In  1362 
Parliament  made  a  law  that  all  cases  in  the  law  courts  must 
"  hereafter  be  pleaded,  defended,  and  debated  in  the  English 
tongue." 

Cloth  Manufacture  in  Edward  III.'s  Time.  In  this 
reign  the  manufacture  of  good  cloth  was  begun  in  England. 
The  people  had  long  made  coarse  cloth,  but  the  finer  woolens 
could  be  obtained  only  in  the  Flemish  provinces.  Edward, 
through  the  influence  of  his  wife  Philippa,  brought  over  a 
company  of  Flemish  spinners  and  weavers,  who  taught  the 
English  how  to  spin  fine  thread  and  make  it  into  cloth.  All 
work  was  done  by  hand.  Every  workman  had  his  own  wheel 
and  loom,  and  belonged  to  the  guild  of  his  craft,  or  trade. 
Young  apprentices  had  to  serve  under  master  workmen  until 
they  became  skilled  in  the  trade. 

The  Merchant  Guild;  Staples;  the  Steelyard.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  robber  knights  abounded  on  land  and  pi- 
rates at  sea,  many  dangers  beset  traveling  merchants.  They 
naturally  joined  in  leagues  and  guilds  for  protection.  The 
peace-guilds  of  the  towns  and  villages,  formed  for  the  com- 
mon protection  of  their  members,  the  social  and  religious 


1377] 


EDWARD  111. 


125 


guilds,  and  the  trade  guilds  served  as  the  models  for  the 
merchant  guilds.     The  most  noted  merchant  guild  was  formed 
in  Germany  in  1241  and  was  known  as  the  Hansa,  or  the 
Hanseatic  League.     This  league  came  to  control  all  the  trade 
of  northern  Europe,  and  included  eighty-five  leading  cities, 
among  them  Liibeck,  Cologne,  Bruges,  and  London  (map,  p. 
164).     The  roads  leading  from  city  to  city  were  carefully 
guarded,  so  that  the  merchant  caravans  could  travel  safely. 
The  league  kept  in  its  employ  a  large  army  and  a  strong  navy. 
In  each  city  it  kept  a  fortress  and  storehouse,  where  the 
merchant   guild  of  the  city  could  meet  and   where  goods 
could  be  safely  stored  or  exchanged.     In  London  this  build- 
ing stood  on  the  bank 
of  the   Thames   and 
was    known    as    the 
Steelyard,     from     a 
Dutch    word,    stael- 
hof,  which  meant  the 
place  where  cloth  was 
marked      as      being 
properly  dyed  and  of 
standard  quality.  Goods  were  disposed  of  at  great  fairs,  which 
were  held  in  important  towns.     After  a  time  these  fairs  were 
kept  up  in  a  few  towns  during  the  whole  year,  and  such  places 
became  known  as  "  staples."    The  chief  productions  of  Eng- 
land, as  wool,  sheepskins,  and  leather,  were  allowed  to  be 
sold  only  in  the  staple  towns,  and  hence  the  goods  themselves 
were  called  "  staples."    Calais,  from  its  convenient  situation, 
became  the  chief  English  staple.     Only  merchants  having  a 
royal  license  were  allowed  to  trade  at  the  fairs  and  staples. 
We  shall  find  the  peasants,  in  the  reign  of  Eichard  II.,  de- 
manding the  privilege  to  buy  and  sell  freely  at  the  fairs,  in- 
stead of  being  compelled  to  pay  a  good  round  sum  for  the 
privilege. 


THE  STEELYARD. 


126  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1327 

Eastern  Trade  Routes.  In  the  south  of  Europe  trade 
was  chiefly  controlled  by  the  great  Italian  cities  Venice  and 
Genoa.  Their  ships  sailed  to  every  part  of  the  Mediterranean. 
They  commanded  the  trade  routes  to  the  East  (p.  164) .  The 
crusades  had  made  the  people  of  Europe  acquainted  with  the 
luxuries  of  the  East.  From  the  countries  of  Asia,  costly 
fabrics,  metal  and  glass  ware,  and  gems  and  pearls  found 
their  way  to  European  courts  through  the  gates  of  Venice  and 
Genoa.  The  merchants  of  these  towns  traded  with  the  mer- 
chants of  the  Hansa,  and  so  goods  that  had  been  made  in  far 
away  China  and  India  were  offered  for  sale  in  York  and 
London. 

Self-Government  in  the  Towns.  The  guilds,  which  were 
the  wealthy  corporations  of  the  Middle  Ages,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  king's  need  of  money,  bought  from  him  charters, 
privileges,  and  power  to  raise  their  own  taxes  and  to  make 
their  own  laws.  London  in  this  way  purchased  its  liberty 
of  the  Conqueror.  Other  towns  followed  until  all  the  larger 
cities  in  England  became  self-governing  communities.  This 
practice  in  the  art  of  governing  was  of  great  advantage  to  the 
burgesses  who  became  members  of  Parliament.  The  growth 
and  organization  of  the  Commons  was  largely  due  to  the  expe- 
rience of  the  burgesses  in  the  management  of  the  affairs  of 
their  guilds  and  boroughs. 

Richard  II.,  1377-1399. 

The  Uprising  of  the  Peasants.  When  Richard  II.,  at 
the  age  of  ten,  came  to  the  throne,  a  variety  of  troubles  were 
threatening  the  kingdom.  The  French  attacked  the  coast. 
The  Scots,  as  usual,  acting  with  France,  plundered  the  bor- 
ders. The  clergy  and  the  barons  stopped  quarreling  long 
enough  to  provide  against  the  common  danger,  and  under  the 
lead  of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  carry  the  war  into  France. 


1381]  RICHARD  II.  127 

But  more  serious  trouble  was  brewing  within  the  country. 
The  Statute  of  Laborers,  passed  in  the  last  reign,  and  the  at- 
tempts of  the  landlords  to  keep  the  peasants  in  a  state  of 
villenage,  had  provoked  a  spirit  of  discontent  everywhere. 
This  feeling  was  especially  strong  among  the  Lollards,  the 
followers  of  Wyclif.  Their  leaders  went  abroad  preaching 
against  the  vices  and  negligence  of  the  clergy,  and  encoura- 
ging the  peasants  in  their  revolt  against  the  landlords.  A 
priest  named  John  Ball  also  preached  in  the  same  way,-  taking 
for  his  text  the  following  lines: 

"  When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman?  " 

He  would  say  to  the  peasants:  "My  friends,  things  will 
never  go  well  in  England  till  there  shall  no  longer  be  lord 
and  vassal,  when  we  shall  be  our  own  masters  as  much  as 
they.  What  right  have  they  to  keep  us  in  bondage?  And 
how  ill  they  use  us !  Are  we  not  all  descended  from  Adam 
and  Eve  ?  And  they  are  clothed  in  velvets  and  ermine,  while 
we  must  wear  the  poorest  cloth.  They  have  wines  and  spices 
and  fine  bread  and  handsome  houses,  while  we  have  only  rye 
and  water  for  food  and  drink,  and  must  brave  the  wind  and 
rain  in  the  field.  Let  us  go  to  the  king,  who  is  young,  and 
tell  him  of  our  servitude,  and  that  we  must  have  it  otherwise 
or  we  will  find  a  remedy  for  ourselves/' 

To  meet  the  war  expenses,  the  Parliament  had  levied  a 
poll  tax,  according  to  each  man's  rank.  Every  peasant  was 
to  pay  three  groats  for  each  grown-up  member  of  his  family. 
One  of  the  tax  collectors  behaved  in  an  offensive  manner 
in  the  home  of  a  certain  Wat  Tyler  in  Kent,  who  struck  him 
dead  with  a  hammer.  Tyler's  neighbors  rose  to  protect  him. 
Jack  Straw  roused  the  peasants  in  the  neighboring  county  of 
Essex.  In  a  short  time  the  movement  spread  from  one  end 
of  England  to  the  other. 


THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1381 

The  lords  were  the  first  to  feel  the  vengeance  of  the  rebels. 
Their  manor  houses  were  torn  down,  their  parks  stripped  of 
game,  and  their  property  carried  away. 

An  immense  mob,  said  to  number  100,000,  streamed  into 
London.  The  king  and  a  few  attendants  rode  out  to  meet 
them,  and  offered  to  grant  all  that  they  asked.  They  de- 
manded four  things:  that  villenage,  or  work  without  pay, 
be  abolished,  so  that  they  should  be  forever  free  men;  that 
the  rent  of  land  be  fourpence  an  acre;  that  they  be  free  to 
buy  and  sell  in  all  the  fairs  and  markets;  and  that  there 
should  be  a  general  pardon  for  past  offenses.  Charters  agree- 
ing to  all  their  demands  were  made  out  and  given  to  the  peas- 
ants of  each  parish,  most  of  whom  then  returned  to  their 
homes. 

About  30,000,  however,  remained  under  the  lead  of  Tyler. 
As  the  king  and  his  attendants  were  riding  through  the 
streets,  Tyler  came  up  and  spoke  to  him,  laying  his  hand  on 
the  king's  bridle.  Upon  this  he  was  immediately  cut  d.own 
by  the  Mayor  of  London  and  one  of  Richard's  attendants. 
The  followers  of  Tyler  bent  their  bows  and  would  have  slain 
the  king  and  his  followers,  but  Richard  with  rare  bravery 
and  presence  of  mind  rode  among  them  and  cried,  "  I  will 
be  your  leader.  I  am  your  king/'  And  the  mob  followed 
after  him,  through  the  streets,  till  a  force  of  soldiers  fell  upon 
them  and  drove  them  from  the  city. 

The  poor  peasants  were  now  mercilessly  punished.  They 
were  slaughtered  by  thousands  throughout  the  country  and 
thrust  back  into  bondage  worse  than  before.  But  in  spite 
of  their  defeat  they  had  accomplished  their  main  object. 
They  had  shown  their  power.  The  landlord  found  that  slave 
labor  was  neither  profitable  nor  safe,  and  villenage  from  this 
time  gradually  died  out. 

Richard's  Uncles,  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  and  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  made  him  a  vast  amount  of  trouble.  The  rest 


1389]  RICHARD  II.  129 

of  his  reign  was  largely  taken  up  with  his  contests  with  them 
for  control  of  affairs.  The  Duke  of  Lancaster  at  first  had 
his  own  way,  but  was  unsuccessful  and  extravagant.  He  was 
suspected  of  having  designs  upon  the  throne,  and  was  hated 
by  the  common  people.  He  soon  sailed  away  to  Spain  to 
claim  the  throne  of  Castile  in  right  of  his  wife,  and  left 
Kichard  to  himself. 

Eichard  invaded  Scotland  with  some  success,  and  costly 
preparation  was  made  to  resist  a  French  invasion  that  did  not 
come.  A  strong  party  gathered  under  the  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter; but  he  was  as  unsuccessful,  and  as  much  disliked,  as 
Lancaster  had  been.  It  was  during  his  rule  that  the  battle 
of  Otterburn  was  fought  between  the  Percys  of  Northum- 
berland and  Earl  Douglas,  described  in  the  famous  "  Ballad 
of  Chevy  Chase."  In  the  ballad  Earl  Douglas  thus  challenges 
Percy  to  a  personal  combat : 

"  But  trust  me,  Percy,  pity  't  were 

And  great  offense  to  kill 
Any  of  these  our  guiltlesse  men, 
For  they  have  done  no  ill. 

"  Let  thou  and   I  the  battell  trye 

And  set  our  men  aside." 
"Accurst  bee  he,"  Erie  Percy  sayd, 
"  By  whome  this  is  denyed." 

They  fought  untill  they  both  did  sweat, 

With  swords  of  tempered  steele, 
Untill  the  blood,  like  drops  of  rain, 

They  trickling  down  did  feel. 

Richard  Assumes  Control.  One  day  in  the  council  Eich- 
ard turned  to  his  uncle  and  quietly  asked  his  own  age. 

"  Your  Majesty,"  said  Gloucester,  "  is  in  your  twenty- 
second  year." 

"  Then,"  said  Eichard,  "  I  am  surely  old  enough  to  manage 
my  own  affairs,  as  other  men  attain  their  majority  at  twent}r- 


130  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1389 

one.     I  thank  you,  my  lords,  for  your  past  services,  but  I 
want  them  no  longer/' 

For  seven  years  after  this,  Eichard  ruled  moderately  and 
well.  He  tried  to  be  friendly  with  those  who  had  been  his 
enemies.  He  made  a  long  truce  with  France  and  married  the 
daughter  of  the  French  king. 

His  Despotism.  There  was  dissatisfaction  with  the  king's 
alliance  with  France.  Fearing  that  his  uncle  Gloucester  and 
his  friends  would  take  advantage  of  it  to  deprive  him  of 
power  again,  Richard  suddenly  caused  three  of  them  to  be 
seized.  Gloucester  was  imprisoned  at  Calais  and  secretly 
murdered.  The  king  now  began  to  gather  soldiers  about  him, 
to  rob  the  people  of  their  money,  and  to  illtreat  them  in  other 
ways,  just  as  some  of  the  barons  were  in  the  habit  of  doing. 
The  people,  seeing  that  he  was  no  longer  their  protector 
and  champion,  were  ready  to  give  their  allegiance  to  a  new 
leader. 

Henry  Bolingbroke  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of  Lancaster.  He  had  been  unjustly  banished  for  ten  years, 
and  when  his  father  died,  the  estates  which  should  have 
gone  to  him  were  seized  by  Eichard.  People  began  to  think 
that  under  such  a  king  no.  man's  property  was  safe.  Henry 
suddenly  landed  in  Yorkshire  with  a  small  force.  He  said 
he  had  come  to  claim  his  inheritance,  and  to  set  right  the 
wrongs  which  prevailed  in  England.  Armed  men  flocked  to 
his  banner.  Eichard,  who  was  in  Ireland  fighting  against 
some  chiefs  who  had  invaded  the  English  Pale,  was  on  his 
return  betrayed  into  Henry's  hands  by  the  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland. The  new  Duke  of  Lancaster  came  into  his  pres- 
ence. 

"  Fair  cousin  of  Lancaster,"  said  Eichard,  "  you  are  right 
welcome." 

"  My  Lord,"  replied  Henry,  "  I  am  come  before  my  time. 
But  I  will  show  you  the  reason.  Your  people  complain  that 


1399] 


RICHARD  II. 


131 


for  twenty-two  years  you  have  ruled  them  rigorously,  and 
now,  if  it  please  God,  I  shall  help  you  to  govern  better." 

Richard  was  taken  to  the  famous  Tower  of  London  and 
was   compelled  to   resign  the   throne.     Henry   claimed   the 


THE  PBESEXT  TOWER  OF  LONDON*. 

throne,  although  the  rightful  heir  was  Edmund  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March,  who  was  descended  from  Lionel,  the  third  son 
of  Edward  III.,  while  John  of  Gaunt  was  the  fourth.  But 
the  Parliament  elected  Henry,  exercising  its  ancient  right 
in  choosing  a  king. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  reasons,  if  any,  justified  Edward  III.  in  beginning  the  Hun- 

dred Years'  War? 

2.  Give  reasons  for  the  Scotch  alliance  with  France. 

3.  How  could  the  French  have  avoided  the  disaster  at  Cre"cy? 

4.  What    led    to   villenage   in   England,    and   what   caused   it   to   die 

out? 

5.  Who   was    W.vclif?     Chaucer? 

6.  Describe    the    routes    by    which    the    products    of    the    East    were 

brought   to   England. 


132  THE  LATER  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  [1399 

7.  How  was  domestic  commerce  carried  on  in  Edward  III.'s  time? 

How  did  this  method  affect  the  people?     The  merchants?     The 
king? 

8.  What  advantages  came  from  the  merchant  and  trade  guilds? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  BLACK  DEATH.     Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  102-106;  Green, 

Short  History,  p.  248. 

2.  THE  BLACK   PRINCE.     Scott,   Tales   of  a   Grandfather;   Stoddard, 

With  the  Black  Prince. 

3.  THE    MERCHANT    GUILDS.     Green,    Short    History,    pp.    193-199 ; 

Gardiner,  Student's  History,  p.  169. 

4.  THE   PEASANTS'  REVOLT.     Yonge,   Cameos   from  English  History, 

Vol.  IV. ;  Lanier,  The  Boy's  Froissart,  pp.  278-294. 

5.  BATTLES  OF  CRECY  AND  POITIERS.     Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  93- 

97;  Lanier,  The  Boy's  Froissart,  pp.  226-253. 


VI.    THE   HOUSES   OF   LANCASTER  AND  YORK.* 

A.    SUCCESS  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD. 
Henry  IV.  1399-1413. 

"  Uneasy  Lies  the  Head  that  Wears  a  Crown"  are  words 
put  into  the  mouth  of  Henry  IV.  by  Shakespeare,  and  they 
could  not  be  more  appropriately  said  of  any  other  king. 
During  the  first  nine  years  of  his  reign,  his  energies  were 
directed  toward  keeping  the  crown  which  he  had  so  easily 
obtained.  Although  he  was  not  the  heir  to  the  throne,  the 
people  accepted  him,  because  they  loved  peace  and  thought 
that  he  would  be  a  strong  ruler,  and  prevent  such  insurrection 
and  bloodshed  as  had  disgraced  the  reign  of  Richard. 

The  Burning  of  Heretics.  On  ascending  the  throne 
Henry  had  announced  that  he  would  protect  the  church 
against  the  assaults  of  the  Lollards,  and  his  commissioners 
asked  the  bishops  to  take  measures  to  suppress  the  teaching 
of  the  itinerant  preachers.  Accordingly  a  statute  was  enacted 
by  which  persons  convicted  of  teaching  heresy  and  persisting 
in  it  after  conviction  were  to  be  turned  over  to  the  sheriff  or 
other  civil  officer  to  be  burnt  before  the  people. 

'HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

Edmund,  younger  son  of  Henry  III.  (p.  75) 
Henry,  Earl  of  Lancaster 
Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster 

John  of  Gaunt  (p.  102)  m.  Blanche. 
Duke  of  Lancaster  | 

HEXRY  IV.     (1399-1413) 

HENRY  V.     (1413-1422) 
HENRY  VL   (1422-1461) 

133 


134  HOUSE   OF  LANCASTER  [1401 

This  was  the  first  law  passed  in  England  to  suppress  religious 
freedom,  though  there  were  many  such  laws  in  other  coun- 
tries. William  Sawtre  was  the  first  victim.  He  was  burned 
to  death  because  of  his  teaching  with  regard  to  the  Eucharist, 
or  Lord's  Supper*. 

The  First  Attempt  to  Dethrone  Henry  was  made  within 
two  months  of  his  accession,  by  some  nobles  who  favored 
Richard  and  wished  to  restore  him.  Their  plot  was  discov- 
ered and  they  fled,  but  were  seized  and  put  to  -death.  Richard 
died  soon  after  this,  and  his  body  was  shown  to  the  people 
that  all  might  know  he  was  really  dead.  But  the  report  went 
out  that  the  dead  body  shown  was  not  that  of  Richard,  and 
rumors  of  his  appearance  in  different  places  were  a  source  of 
trouble  to  King  Henry  for  several  years. 

Owen  Glendower  was  a  Welshman  whose  estate  had  been 
seized  by  an  English  noble.  As  the  king  failed  to  restore 
the  land,  Owen  declared  himself  Prince  of  Wales  and  began 
war.  He  defeated  several  forces  sent  against  him  and  cap- 
tured Lord  Grey,  who  had  taken  his  estate,  and  many  other 
prisoners.  The  king  found  it  impossible  to  subdue  Owen, 
and  the  terrible  storms  that  arose  when  the  English  invaded 
his  mountain  fastnesses  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that  the  Welsh 
leader  was  a  wizard  and  could  bring  storms  at  will  to  confuse 
his  enemies. 

The  Battle  of  Shrewsbury  (1403).  The  Earl  of  Nor- 
thumberland bore  the  family  name  of  Percy.  His  house  had 
strongly  supported  Henry's  claim  to  the  throne.  As  it  was 
the  duty  of  the  Percys  to  guard  England  against  Scotch  in- 
vasion, they  kept  a  vast  number  of  "  retainers,"  or  hired  sol- 
diers, such  as  were  maintained  by  some  barons  after  the  de- 
cline of  the  feudal  system.  They  met  a  Scotch  force  return- 
ing from  a  raid  on  the  English  border  and  totally  defeated  it 
at  Homildon  Hill.  A  number  of  Scotch  nobles  fell  into 
their  hands,  for  whom  they  expected  large  ransoms.  But 


1407]  HENRY  IV.  135 

Henry  demanded  the  ransoms  for  himself.  Northumberland's 
son,  Harry  Percy,  called  "  Hotspur  "  from  his  vigor  and  dar- 
ing in  battle,  had  also  another  grievance  because  Henry  did 
not  ransom  Hotspur's  brother-in-law,  the  uncle  of  the  Earl 
of  March  who  was  the  true  heir  to  the  throne,  when  he  ran- 
somed other  captives  from  the  hands  of  Owen  Glendower. 
Disgusted  and  raging  at  the  king's  ingratitude,  the  Percys 
joined  the  Scotch,  and  their  army,  under  Hotspur,  marched 
south  to  join  Glendower.  But  it  was  met  by  Henry's  army 
at  Shrewsbury,  where  Hotspur  was  defeated  and  killed. 
There  were  a  few  more  risings  against  Henry  in  England,  but 
all  were  put  down. 

Peace  with  France  and  Scotland.  Henry  had  vanquished 
his  enemies  at  home.  Two  accidents  gave  him  the  upper 
hand  abroad.  The  King  of  France  was  Charles  VI.,  a  weak 
ruler.  His  relatives  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy  exercised  the  real  power.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy 
held  Flanders  and  was  friendly  to  England  for  reasons  of 
trade,  but  Orleans  was  Henry's  bitter  enemy.  In  the  year 
1407  Orleans  was  murdered  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  and 
the  French  opposition  to  England  was  soon  afterwards 
withdrawn. 

Shortly  before  this,  the  King  of  Scotland  sent  his  son, 
Prince  James,  away  to  France  to  learn  French  and  to  finish 
his  education.  But  an  English  ship  captured  the  vessel  in 
which  he  sailed,  and  brought  him  a  prisoner  to  King  Henry. 
The  king  rejoiced  at  his  good  fortune,  for  it  secured  him 
against  any  further  inroads  on  the  part  of  the  Scotch,  and 
he  said  he  could  "teach  the  prince  French  as  well  as  the 
French  king."  For  seventeen  years  the  prince  was  detained. 
After  this  he  was  released  and  became  King  James  I.  of  Scot- 
land. Henry  provided  for  his  education,  and  the  prince  in 
his  captivity  became  the  most  famous  poet  of  the  time.  His 
chief  work,  a  poetical  account  of  the  incidents  of  his  life, 


136  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER  [1407 

is  called  "  The  King's  Quhair."  One  morning,  looking  from 
his  prison  window,  he  saw,  "  walkyng  tinder  the  Toure," 

"  The  fairest  or  the  freschest  younge  floure 
That  ever  I  sawe,  methought,  before  that  houre." 

This  fair  "  young  flower  "  was  Lady  Jane  Beaufort,  whom  the 
prince  afterwards  married. 

The  House  of  Commons.  Henry's  need  of  strong  sup- 
port from  the  people  led  to  a  great  increase  in  the  power 
of  their  representatives  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Com- 
mons secured  the  sole  right  to  levy  taxes,  and  before  granting 
money  to  the  king  insisted  on  having  evil  practices  remedied. 
They  reserved  for  themselves  the  right  of  deciding  disputed 
elections.  They  also  secured  for  their  members  freedom  of 
speech  and  freedom  from  arrest  while  m  discharge  of  their 
duties.  They  had  an  accurate  journal  of  their  proceedings 
kept,  so  that  there  could  no  longer  be  any  dispute  concerning 
what  they  had  done.  Henry  IV.  was  so  careful  to  rule  ac- 
cording to  law  that  he  has  been  called  the  first  constitutional 
monarch  in  the  history  of  Europe.  . 

Prince  "  Hal."  The  victory  over  the  Percys  at  Shrews- 
bury was  due  largely  to  the  bravery  of  the  PriDce  of  Wales. 
Shakespeare,  in  his  play  "  King  Henry  IV.,"  has  described  the 
prince  as  a  wild  and  dissolute  young  man.  But  if  so,  Prince 
Henry  laid  aside  his  folly  promptly  when  serious  work  was 
to  be  done.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  became  a  member  of 
his  father's  council,  and  during  the  later  years  of  the  reign 
the  prince  became  the  real  head  of  the  government.  The  king, 
who  had  suffered  long  from  a  troublesome  disease,  died  in 
1413  in  the  room  of  Westminster  Abbey  called  the  Jerusalem 
Chamber. 

"  It  hath  been  prophesied  to  me  many  years, 
I  should  not  die  but  in  Jerusalem ; 
"Which  vainly  I  supposed  the  Holy  Land. — 
But  bear  me  to  that  chamber ;  there  I'll  lie ; 
In  that  Jerusalem  shall  Harry  die." 


1415]  HENRY  V.  137 

Henry  V.,  1413-1422. 

Suppression  of  the  Lollards.  Henry  V.  was  sternly  re- 
ligious and  followed  his  father's  policy  in  suppressing  heresy. 
The  Lollard  leader  was  a  former  friend  of  the  king,  Sir  John 
Oldcastle.  He  was  tried  and  condemned  to  the  stake.  But 
before  the  sentence  could  be  carried  out,  he  escaped.  His 
followers  formed  a  plot  to  kill  the  king  and  his  brothers. 
Their  plot  was  discovered,  and  thirty-nine  of  them  were  cap- 
tured and  put  to  death.  A  few  years  later  Oldcastle  also  was 
taken  and  burned.  After  this  the  Lollards  were  driven  out  of 
the  towns ;  their  books  and  writings  were  burned,  and  we  hear 
no  more  of  them  in  England. 

The  War  with  France  was  now  Resumed.  Henry,  re- 
viving the  claim  of  Edward  III.,  resolved  to  seize  the  throne 
of  France.  He  thought  that  if  he  occupied  the  attention  of 
the  nobles  with  a  foreign  war,  they  would  be  less  disposed  to 
rebel  against  him.  France  was  at  this  time  weakened  by 
the  deadly  strife  of  the  Burgundy  and  Armagnac  factions. 

In  1415  he  landed  with  a  large 
army  at  Harfleur,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Seine,  and  took  that  town 
after  a  terrible  siege.  Though  he 
had  lost  half  his  army  by  famine 
and  sickness,  he  now  started  to 
march  overland  to  the  English 
town  of  Calais.  An  army  of  40,- 
BATTLE  OF  AGINCOUET.  000  French.  blocked  his  way  at 

Agincourt.  The  battle  was  fought  on  a  freshly  plowed  field, 
where  the  French  knights,  clad  in  heavy  armor,  sank  knee- 
deep  in  the  mud  and  stuck  fast  when  they  attempted  to 
charge  the  English.  The  battles  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers  had 
taught  the  French  nothing,  and  they  were  merely  targets  for 
the  English  archers.  Ten  thousand  French  were  killed  and 
several  thousand  more  made  prisoners  by  the  little  English 


138 


HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER 


[1415 


THE  MORNING  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  AGINCOUKT. 

army  of  G.,000  men.  Before  the  battle,  Shakespeare  puts  into 
the  mouth  of  the  Earl  of  Westmoreland  words  addressed  to 
the  king: 

"  O,  that  we  now  had  here 

But  one  ten  thousand  of  those  men  in  England 
That  do  no  work  to-day !  " 

The  king  replies : 

"  No,  my  fair  cousin : 
If  we  are  marked  to  die,  we  are  enough 
To  do  our  country  loss ;  and  if  to  live, 
The  fewer  men,  the  greater  share  of  honor. 
God's  will !  I  pray  thee,  wish  not  one  man  more." 

Henry  now  retired  to  England  to  recruit  his  army.  Two 
years  later  he  came  back  to  France  and  took  town  after 
town.  The  leading  men  in  every  place  were  hanged  as 
traitors.  But  Eouen  held  out  bravely  against  Henry's  siege. 


1422]  HENRY  V.  139 

Thousands  of  the  peasants  had  gathered  in  the  town  for 
protection.  The  magistrates  drove  them  out  of  the  gates  in 
order  that  food  might  be  saved  for  the  soldiers.  Henry  re- 
fused to  allow  them  to  pass  his  lines  and  held  them  penned 
up  outside  the  walls  of  Kouen,  where  old  men,  helpless  women 
and  children  starved  and  died.  After  six  months  the  city 
itself  was  starved  into  surrender. 

Treaty  of  Troyes  and  Death  of  Henry.  The  English 
successes  and  a  threatened  attack  on  Paris  drove  the  French 
to  attempt  to  reconcile  the  warring  parties  of  Burgundy  and 
Armagnac.  But  when  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  murdered 
the  Burgundian  party  joined  Henry,  and  they  took  possession 
of  Paris.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  made  at  Troyes  in  1420. 
Henry  married  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  the  French  king, 
Charles  VI. ;  became  Eegent  of  France ;  and,  on  the  death  of 
the  king,  was  to  succeed  to  the  throne.  While  making  prep- 
arations for  subduing  the  south  of  France,  which  held  out 
for  the  son  of  Charles  VI.,  Henry  suddenly  died  near  Paris 
in  1422. 

Henry  V.  had  become  the  hero  of  the  English  nation.  The 
glory  he  had  won  in  the  wars  at  home  was  increased  a  hundred 
fold  by  his  success  in  France.  His  early  death  brought  deeper 
sorrow  to  the  nation  than  it  had  ever  before  felt  for  the  loss 
of  a  king.  The  right  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  to  the  throne 
was  firmly  established. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  Richard  II.  lose  his  throne?     Why  was  Henry  IV.  put 

in  his  place? 

2.  Why    was    it   good    policy    for    Henry    IV.    to   favor   the   church? 

Why  was  the  law  concerning  heresy  passed? 

3.  Why  did  the  House  of  Commons  get  more  power  during  this  reign? 

Did  the  king  favor  this?     Why? 

4.  Did    the    French    war   accomplish   the   purpose   for   which    it   was 

besun? 


140  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER  [1422 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE   LOLLARDS.     Davis,   The  Lollard;   Green,   Short   History,  pp. 

242-273. 

2.  PRINCE  HAL.     Kingsford,  Henry  V.,  pp.  1-93;  Yonge,  Cameos  from 

English  History,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  247-56. 

3.  BATTLE    OF    AGINCOURT.     Shakespeare,    King    Henry    V.;    Yonge, 

Cameos  from  English  History,  II.,  pp.  274-284. 

4.  PBINCE  JAMES  OF  SCOTLAND.     Yonge,  The  Caged  Lion;  Mackin- 

tosh, History  of  Scotland. 

B.    THE  WAES  OP  THE  KOSES. 

Henry  VI.,  1422-1461. 

The  English  in  France.  The  infant  son  of  Henry  V. 
was  crowned  in  England  and,  after  the  death  of  Charles  VI., 
in  France  also.  The  war  against  Charles  VII.,  the  son  of 
Charles  VI.,  went  on  under  the  command  of  a  brave  and  able 
man,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  brother  of  Henry  V.  The  French 
were  discouraged  and  made  little  resistance  as  the  English 
army  marched  south  from  Paris,  capturing  town  after  town. 
Finally  the  English  came  to  the  great  city  of  Orleans  on  the 
Loire.  If  this  city  should  fall,  the  cause  of  France  would  be 
lost,  and  Charles  VII.  was  already  preparing  to  flee  to  Scot- 
land with  his  court. 

Joan  of  Arc.  But  help  came  from  an  unexpected  source. 
The  French  had  given  up  all  hope  of  being  able  to  drive 
out  the  English ;  while  the  English,  confident  that  they  would 
soon  have  everything  their  own  way,  were  not  so  careful  as 
they  had  been  in  times  of  danger.  If  the  French  soldiers 
could  only  be  inspired  with  confidence  in  themselves  they 
might  yet  win.  The  inspiration  came  to  them  through  a 
little  peasant  girl  of  Lorraine.  When  she  heard  the  horrible 
tales  of  the  murder  and  devastation  wrought  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  that  no  one  was  able  to  lead  the  French  against  them, 
it  seemed  to  Joan  of  Arc  (or  Jeanne  d'Arc)  that  she  was 
chosen  by  God  to  be  their  leader.  As  she  thought  about  it 


1429] 


HENRY  VI. 


141 


more  and  more,  she  fancied  angels  came  to  her,  saying,  "  Go, 
Joan,  and  save  the  king !  Lead  him  to  Eeims  to  be  crowned 
and  anointed ! "  There  was  an  old  prophecy  of  which  Joan 
had  heard  —  that  a  woman  should  destroy  the  kingdom,  and 
that  a  maiden  of  Lorraine  should  save  it.  And  she  believed 
that  she  was  the  maiden. 

At  last  her  own  village  of  Domremi  was  destroyed  by  a 
troop  of  Burgundians.  Joan  made  her  way  to  the  French 
king's  court.  Soon 
the  news  spread 
among  the  French 
soldiers  that  a  vir- 
gin had  come  from 
heaven  to  save 
France.  Clad  in 
armor  and  mounted 
on  a  white  horse, 
she  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  an  army 
to  relieve  Orleans. 
With  shouts  of  tri- 
umph, the  French 
assaulted  the  tow- 
ers built  by  the 
English  besiegers 
before  the  city,  and 
carried  them.  The 
bravest  E  n  g  1  i  s  h  t 
commanders,  Suf- 
folk and  Talbot,  gave  up  in  despair,  and  the  next  day  re- 
treated. The  maid  urged  a  hot  pursuit  and  inflicted  another 
severe  defeat  on  the  enemy.  She  led  the  king  to  Eeims,  the 
old  coronation  city  of  France,  and  there  in  the  great  cathedral, 
July  17,  1429,  she  saw  with  joy  the  crown  placed  upon  his 


JOAN'S  ENTRY  INTO  ORLEANS. 


142  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER  [1429 

head.  She  had  now  done  all  that  the  angels  had  told  her  io- 
do,  and  wished  to  return  to  her  home.  But  Charles  insisted 
on  her  remaining  with  the  army,  thinking  they  could  not  con- 
quer without  her. 

Capture  and  Death  of  Joan.  In  the  following  spring, 
the  Burgundians  took  Joan  prisoner  and  sold  her  to  the 
English.  If  the  French  thought  her  to  be  an  angel  from 
heaven,  to  the  English  she  was  a  witch  and  in  league  with 
the  devil.  To  the  everlasting  shame  of  the  English  com- 
mander, she  was  tried  and  condemned  to  be  burned.  She  died 
declaring  to  the  last  that  the  voices  which  urged  her  to  go 
against  the  English  came  from  God,  and  the  last  word  she 
uttered  before  the  smoke  and  flame  stopped  her  voice  forever 
was  "Jesus/'  An  English  soldier  standing  by  cried  out  in 
terror,  "  We  are  lost !  We  have  burned  a  saint !  " 

The  Final  Defeat  of  the  English  was  at  hand,  for  the 
French  spirit  of  patriotism  had  been  aroused.  Public  busi- 
ness compelled  Bedford  to  return  to  England,  and  during 
his  absence  the  French  gained  rapidly.  After  his  death 
the  Burgundians  and  French  united  against  the  English,  and 
Paris  was  soon  won  back.  A  truce  was  made,  and  the  young 
English  king,  Henry  VI.,  married  Margaret,  a  princess  of 
Anjou.  But  before  long  the  French  reconquered  Normandy 
and  some  coast  towns,  and  England,  out  of  all  the  possessions 
that  Edward  III.  had  won  in  France,  was  allowed  to  retain 
only  the  little  town  of  Calais.  The  Hundred  Years'  War  was 
at  an  end  (1453).  The  ambition  of  two  warlike  kings,  Ed- 
ward III.  and  Henry  V.,  had  cost  the  country  untold  blood 
and  treasure,  and  brought  in  the  end  only  loss  and  shame. 

Weak  Rule  of  Henry  VI.  During  the  war  Henry  VI. 
had  grown  to  manhood.  Gentle  and  pious  enough,  he  lacked 
the  energy  and  strength  of  character  to  rule  in  such  rough 
times.  Grasping  nobles  and  dissolute  soldiers  returning 
from  France  kept  England  in  a  state  of  confusion.  Jus- 


1450]  HENRY  VI.  143 

tice  was  not  enforced,  and  the  strong  robbed  the  weak  at 
pleasure.  The  soil,  owing  to  bad  methods  of  farming,  had 
become  poor,  and  large  tracts  which  had  been  the  homes 
of  the  poor  were  fenced  in  and  turned  into  sheep  pastures. 
Wool  brought  a  good  price  and  less  labor  was  required  to 
look  after  the  flocks  than  to  cultivate  the  soil. 

Murder  of  Suffolk.  A  king  too  weak  either  to  win  battles 
or  to  establish  order  was  certain  to  be  unpopular.  The  first 
to  feel  the  public  displeasure  was  the  king's  chancellor,  the 
Duke  of  Suffolk,  who  had  brought  about  the  French  mar- 
riage. The  Parliament  impeached  him;  that  is,  brought 
charges  of  misconduct  against  him.  He  fled  from  the  country. 
But  on  the  voyage  he  was  captured  by  a  company  of  rough 
sailors  and  killed. 

Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York.  The  Duke  of  Somerset, 
who  succeeded  Suffolk  as  the  king's  chief  adviser,  was,  like  the 
king,  descended  from  John  of  Gaunt  (fourth  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.)  and  belonged  to  the  House  of  Lancaster.  Eichard, 
the  Duke  of  York,  now  became  the  popular  leader  against  the 
weak  rule  of  the  king.  He  was  descended  through  his  mother 
(sister  of  Edmund  Mortimer,  p.  131)  from  the  third  son  of 
Edward  III.,  and  hence  claimed  to  have  a  better  right  to  the 
throne  than  Henry  VI. 

The  birth  of  a  son  to  Henry  YI.  took  away  Eichard's  chance 
of  a  peaceable  succession  to  the  throne,  and  he  resolved  to 
maintain  his  rights  by  war.  Thus  arose  a  few  years  later  a 
series  of  wars  between  the  two  rival  houses  of  Lancaster  and 
York  for  the  kingship;  they  lasted,  with  brief  intermissions, 
for  thirty  years  and  are  called  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses,  because 
the  badge  of  Lancaster  was  the  red  rose,  and  that  of  York  the 
white  rose.  The  nobles,  particularly  those  of  the  north, 
were  on  the  side  of  Lancaster,  while  those  of  the  south  and 
especially  the  people  of  London  and  the  larger  towns  favored 
the  House  of  York.  The  House  of  Lancaster  also  supported 


144 


HOUSE  OP  LANCASTER 


[1450 


the  power  of  the   church,  while  the   Yorkists  wanted  the 
church  to  have  less  power  and  favored  certain  reforms. 

A  Rebellion  in  Kent  (1450)  was  the  first  rising  in 
favor  of  Eichard.  Thirty  thousand  men  gathered  under  the 
leadership  of  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishman  who  took  the  name  of 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  WARS  OP  THE  ROSES. 

Mortimer.  The  London  people  opened  their  gates  to  him, 
but  soon  had  occasion  to  regret  it,  for  his  lawless  followers 
began  a  career  of  murder  and  robbery,  which  ended  in  the 
death  of  Cade  and  the  expulsion  of  his  rabble  from  the  city. 
The  Wars  of  the  Roses  began  with  the  battle  of  St.  Al- 
bans  (1455).  The  royal  army  attacked  Richard's  forces  and 
was  defeated.  Somerset  was  killed,  and  the  king  wounded 


1461]  HENRY  Ti.  145 

and  taken.  Kichard  professed  loyalty  to  him,  accompanied 
him  to  London,  and  became  protector  during  the  king's  illness. 
But  Henr)r,  soon  recovering,  dismissed  him. 

Blore  Heath  and  Northampton.  Both  sides  again  took 
up  arms.  The  York  party  was  defeated  at  Blore  Heath,  but 
inflicted  a  terrible  defeat  on  the  king  at  Northampton. 
Many  of  the  nobles  were  killed,  and  the  king  was  found  alone 
in  his  tent.  It  was  now  arranged  that  Richard  should  suc- 
ceed to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Henry,  thus  passing  over 
the  rights  of  Henry's  son,  Edward. 

Wakefield  and  Second  St.  Albans.  Queen  Margaret  had 
no  intention  of  submitting  to  this  slight  to  her  son.  In  the 
north  she  easily  enlisted  a  large  army  of  rough  border  war- 
riors, and,  promising  them  the  plunder  of  the  south,  she 
attacked  the  Yorkists  at  Wakefield  and  completely  routed 
them  (1460).  Richard  was  slain,  and  his  head,  crowned  in 
mockery  with  a  paper  crown,  was  placed  over  the  gates  of 
York.  His  eldest  son,  Edward,  who  was  gathering  troops 
in  the  west,  won  a  victory  at  Mortimer's  Cross  on  the  Welsh 
border.  But  Margaret  won  another  decisive  victory  at  St. 
Albans  and  pushed  on  toward  London.  Her  lawless  follow- 
ers, scattering  in  search  of  plunder,  could  not  be  held  together 
for  the  final  struggle.  The  people  of  the  capital  rallied  about 
Edward,  and  pursued  Margaret  northwards. 

At  Towton,  near  York,  the  armies  met  (1461).  It  was 
to  be  a  fierce  and  final  struggle,  and  no  quarter  was  expected, 
or  given.  The  battle  began  at  night  with  a  heavy  snowstorm 
blowing  in  the  faces  of  the  Lancastrians,  and  a  swollen  river 
blocking  their  retreat.  By  noon  on  the  following  day  the 
side  of  York  had  won.  Thirty  thousand  Englishmen  lay  dead 
upon  the  field.  Among  them  were  the  chief  nobles  of  the 
realm.  Henry  and  Margaret  escaped  with  their  son  and  a 
few  followers  to  Scotland,  and  Edward  IV.  became  the  first 
Yorkist  king. 


146  HOUSE  OF  YORK  [1461 

Edward  IV.,1  1461-1483. 

Continuation  of  the  War.  Edward  had  been  crowned 
at  Westminster  after  the  second  battle  of  St.  Albans.  After 
the  victory  of  Towton,  he  rode  in  triumph  through  the 
gates  of  his  ancestral  city  of  York.,  where  the  head  of  his 
murdered  father  was  still  shown.  But  Edward  did  not  in- 
dulge his  feelings  of  revenge,  and  no  punishment  was  visited 
upon  the  city  that  had  received  his  enemies,  though  his 
forgiveness  did  not  extend  to  the  leaders.  The  charge  of 
treason  was  brought  against  all  of  them,  and  their  property 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  crown.  Edward  returned 
to  London,  leaving  the  Earl  of  Warwick  to  conduct  the  war 
in  the  north.  Margaret  succeeded  in  obtaining  help  from 
the  King  of  France,  and  advanced  from  Scotland  with  an 
army.  But  she  was  again  defeated,  and  the  deposed  King 
Henry  was  captured  and  confined  in  the  famous  Tower  of 
London. 

The  King  Maker  is  a  title  given  by  historians  to  Richard 
Neville,  Earl  of  Warwick.  He  appears  first  as  the  powerful 
noble  to  whose  aid  Edward  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his  crown. 
Several  hundred  manors,  scattered  throughout  England, 
owned  him  as  master.  His  seat  was  at  Kenilworth  Castle, 
where  he  entertained  his  followers  with  royal  munificence. 
In  his  kitchen  a  huge  caldron  was  always  kept  filled  with 
boiling  meat,  and  any  one  was  at  liberty  to  take  away  as 
many  pieces  as  he  could  carry  on  a  long  dagger.  In  his 

1  HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

Richard,  son  of  the  Duke  of  York  (p.  102)  m.  Anne  Mortimer  (p.  102) 

Richard,   Duke   of  York 


EDWARD  IV.  Duke  of  Clarence  RICHARD  ITI. 

|    (1461-1483)  I  (1483-1485) 

Edward, 


r-awara, 

EDWARD  V.      Richard       Elizabeth  of  York      Earl  of  Warwick 
(1488)  (p.    156) 


1470] 


EDWARD  IV. 


147 


home  in  London  six  oxen  were  required  to  furnish  a  breakfast 
to  his  followers.  He  rode  about  the  country  attended  by 
five  hundred  re- 
tainers dressed  in 
livery,  on  which  was 
embroidered  the  bear 
and  ragged  staff,  the 
emblems  of  his 
house.  His  generous 
hospitality,  his  brav- 
ery, and  his  COn-  RUINS  OF  KEXILWOETH  CASTLE. 
sideration  for  those  below  him  in  rank  made  him  a  great 
favorite,  and  in  whatever  part  of  England  he  appeared,  he 
never  lacked  followers. 

Edward's  Mistakes.  "Warwick,  having  raised  Edward  to 
the  throne,  naturally  expected  to  have  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  when  the  king  took  the  matter  of  marriages  and 
offices  into  his  own  hands,  the  earl  was  gravely  offended. 
Edward  married  Elizabeth  "Woodville,  a  widow  of  no  rank,  and 
bestowed  vast  estates  and  titles  upon  her  numerous  relatives. 
Not  only  "Warwick,  but  other  great  Yorkist  nobles  were 
deeply  offended  at  seeing  members  of  this  family  receiving 
greater  honors  than  the  first  lords  of  the  country.  Finally, 
Edward  married  his  sister  to  Charles,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
while  Warwick  was  away  arranging  a  marriage  between  her 
and  the  son  of  the  French  king.  This  so  incensed  the  earl 
that  before  long  he  met  Margaret  in  France,  and  with  her 
and  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  Edward's  brother,  planned  to  in- 
vade England. 

Edward  had  been  a  disappointment  to  his  subjects.  They 
had  looked  for  a  king  who  would  maintain  order  and  secure 
justice  to  the  humblest  citizen.  But  as  soon  as  he  felt  secure 
on  his  throne,  he  gave  himself  up  to  selfish  and  wicked  pleas- 
ures, while  his  people  were  robbed  of  their  property  by  the 


148  HOUSE  OF  YORK  [1470 

lords,  who  compelled  judges  and  juries  to  decide  every  dis- 
pute in  their  favor. 

(Henry  VI.  Restored.  Edward  was  rudely  aroused  from 
his  indolence  when  Warwick  landed  in  England  in  1470.  As 
he  was  about  to  sit  down  to  dinner,  an  attendant  whispered 
to  him  that  armed  men  were  surrounding  the  house.  They 
were  tossing  up  their  hats  and  crying,  "  God  save  King 
Henry ! "  He  had  just  time  to  slip  away  with  a  few  follow- 
ers to  the  coast  and  get  aboard  a  ship  bound  for  Flanders. 
Warwick  now  brought  poor  old  King  Henry  out  of  the  Tower 
and  recrowned  him  with  a  great  deal  of  ceremony.  This  time 
the  change  of  kings  was  made  without  bloodshed. 

Barnet  and  Tewkesbury.  With  the  help  of  his  brother- 
in-law,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  Edward  raised  an  army  of 
2,000  men.  Landing  at  Eavenspur  in  Yorkshire,  he  marched 
to  London.  Clarence,  "false,  fleeting,  perjured  Clarence," 
forsook  Warwick  and  joined  his  brother.  Warwick  found  out 
too  late  that  he  had  been  betrayed;  in  the  battle  of  Barnet 
he  was  defeated  and  killed.  The  same  day  Queen  Margaret 
landed  with  a  fresh  army  at  Weymouth.  Hearing  news  of 
Barnet,  she  started  on  a  rapid  march  to  the  north.  But  Ed- 
ward cut  off  her  army  at  Tewkesbury,  defeated  it,  and  put  the 
Lancastrian  leaders  to  death,  including  Margaret's  son,  the 
young  Prince  Edward.  Margaret  was  made  prisoner,  and 
Henry  VI.  was  again  confined  in  the  Tower,  where  he  was 
shortly  afterwards  murdered. 

Edward  IV.  again  King.  Edward's  throne  was  now  safe, 
for  not  one  descendant  of  Henry  IV.  was  left  alive.  More- 
over, Edward  had  greater  power  in  the  government  than  the 
Lancastrian  kings  had  possessed.  So  many  of  the  nobility 
had  been  killed  in  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses  that  the  barons  were 
not  much  to  be  feared.  And  the  people  cared  more  for  order 
and  a  chance  to  go  on  quietly  about  their  business,  than  they 
did  for  sharing  in  the  work  of  government.  Edward  revived 


1478]  EDWARD  IV.  149 

the  old  practice  of  taking  money  from  his  people  as  forced 
gifts,  or  "  benevolences."  His  good  looks  and  sociable  ways 
made  him  highly  popular,  and  the  people  submitted  to  this 
form  of  arbitrary  taxation  without  resistance.  One  old  lady 
of  whom  he  asked  ten  pounds  said  he  was  such  a  good-looking 


CAXTON  AND  THE  FIRST  PRINTING  PRESS  IN  ENGLAND. 

young  man  that  she  would  give  him  twenty.  When  Edward 
kissed  her  in  accepting  the  gift  she  gave  him  forty. 

Edward  planned  a  war  with  France  to  regain  the  provinces 
lost  by  Henry  VI.,  and  invaded  that  country  in  1475.  But 
the  shrewd  French  king  bribed  him  to  go  back  to  England 
without  fighting. 

Shortly  after  this,  he  brought  a  charge  of  treason  against 


150  HOUSE  OF  YORK  [1478 

his  brother  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  who  wished  to  marry 
the  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  match  not  approved 
by  Edward.  Clarence  was  also  accused  of  conspiring  with  a 
sorceress  to  put  Edward  off  the  throne.  He  was  confined  in 
the  Tower,  where  he  was  put  to  death,  it  is  said,  by  drowning 
in  a  butt  of  Malmsey  wine. 

Edward's  dissolute  life  made  him  old  before  his  time.  He 
became  sad  and  morose.  He  knew  the  nobles  hated  him; 
there  were  few  whose  relatives  he  had  not  in  some  way  de- 
stroyed. He  became  weary  of  life,  and  died,  worn  out  in  body 
and  mind,  leaving  two  young  sons  and  several  daughters. 

The  Introduction  of  Printing  was,  perhaps,  the  most  im- 
portant event  of  Edward  IV.'s  reign.  William  Caxton  set  up 
a  press  at  Westminster  a  few  years  before  Edward's  death.  He 
was  a  native  of  Kent  and  had  traveled  in  Germany  and  Flan- 
ders, where  he  became  a  printer.  Printing  from  movable  type 
was  invented  in  Germany  about  thirty  years  before  it  was 
introduced  into  England.  The  people  of  that  time  looked 
upon  the  printing  press  as  a  curious  toy,  little  dreaming  of 
the  wonderful  changes  that  it  was  destined  to  make  in  the  his- 
tory of  England  before  the  next  century  should  close. 

f 
Edward  V.,  1483. 

Richard  of  Gloucester.  During  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses,  the 
idea  had  grown  up  that  the  only  way  for  a  king  to  rule 
in  safety  was  to  put  to  death  all  those  who  could  possibly 
have  any  interest  in  opposing  him.  This  method  had  been 
pursued  in  some  other  countries,  but  was  rather  new  in  Eng- 
land. Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  late  king's  brother, 
was  a  prudent  and  far-seeing  man,  but  like  most  men  of  his 
time  in  high  position,  he  thought  as  little  of  killing  another 
man  who  stood  in  his  way,  as  a  cat  would  think  of  killing 
a  mouse.  He  was  slightly  deformed  in  one  shoulder,  and  his 
left  arm  had  been  palsied  from  birth.  But  otherwise  he  was 


1483]  EDWARD  V.  151 

a  fine-looking  man  and  had  the  same  good-natured  qualities 
that  had  made  his  brother  so  well  liked  by  the  people.  He 
had  been  a  stanch  supporter  of  Edward,  and  had  fought 
bravely  for  him  during  The  late  wars.  But  there  is  no  doubt 
that  he  kept  steadily  before  himself  the  design  of  securing  the 
crown. 

Murder  of  the  Queen's  Relatives.  He  now  had  good 
reason  to  believe  that  Earl  Bivers,  the  Marquis  of  Dorset, 
and  Sir  Eichard  Grey,  near  relatives  of  the  queen,  who  had 
once  been  plain  Elizabeth  Woodville,  had  formed  a  plot  to 
kill  him  and  assume  the  government.  Lord  Hastings,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council,  had  turned  against  him  and  joined  the 
queen's  party.  Eichard  at  once  made  his  plans,  but  concealed 
them  until  the  time  for  action  came.  He  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Edward  V.,  his  young  nephew,  and  put  on  an 
appearance  of  loyalty.  Grey  and  Eivers,  who  had  charge  of 
Edward's  education,  decided  to  bring  him  to  London  to  be 
crowned.  On  the  road  Eichard  and  the  Duke  of  Buckingham 
overtook  them  with  a  strong  force,  seized  Edward,  and  sent 
Eivers  and  Grey  to  prison,  where  they  were  soon  afterwards 
beheaded  without  a  trial. 

One  morning  the  council  met  to  make  plans  for  crowning 
the  young  king.  Eichard,  now  protector  ef  the  kingdom, 
came  in  late,  but  appeared  to  be  in  the  greatest  good  humor. 
After  a  time,  he  left  the  room  with  Buckingham.  When  he 
returned  his  face  was  changed.  With  a  threatening  look  he 
asked  Hastings,  "  What  have  they  deserved  who  have  plotted 
my  death  ?" 

Hastings  replied  that  such  persons  deserved  to  die. 

"  That  sorceress,  my  brother's  wife,  and  others  with  her !" 
Eichard  exclaimed.  "  See  how  they  have  bewitched  me !  Be- 
hold my  arm,  how  it  is  withered  up  !  "  And  he  showed  them 
his  palsied  arm,  which  they  knew  had  always  been  so,  but  they 
did  not  dare  to  speak,  not  knowing  what  he  was  coming  at. 


152 


HOUSE  OF  YORK 


[1483 


Finally  Hastings  said,  "Certainly,  my  Lord  Protector,  if 
they  have  done  this  thing  and — " 

Here  Eichard,  in  a  fine  pretense  of  rage,  cried  out,  "  You 
talk  to  me  of  ifs  and  ands.  I  tell  you  they  have  done  it. 
Thou  art  a  traitor."  He  struck  his  fist  upon  the  table,  and 
instantly  the  room  was  filled  with  armed  men.  By  his  orders 
Hastings  was  hurried  out  and  his  head  was  chopped  off  at  once 
upon  a  log  which  happened  to  lie  outside  the  house. 

Richard's  Suc- 
cess. Eichard  then 
persuaded  the  queen 
to  give  up  her  young- 
est son,  and  confined 
both  his  nephews  in 
the  Tower.  In  or- 
der to  make  people 
believe  that  he  had 
a  right  to  the  throne, 
he  circulated  a  re- 
port that  Edward  IV. 
was  not  the  son  of 
Eichard  of  York,  and 
that  anyway  he  had 
never  been  legally 
married  to  Elizabeth 
Woodville,  and  that 
therefore  his  sons 
could  not  inherit  the 
crown.  He  caused 
liis  story  to  be  made 

the  subject  of  a  ser- 
TIIE  PRINCES  IN  THE  TOWKR. 

mon  in  a  prominent 

church,  and  his  friend  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  made  a  speech 
to  the  citizens  in  Guildhall,  telling  them  the  same  thing. 


1483  J  RICHARD  III.  153 

The  next  day  Buckingham,  with  the  Lord  Mayor  and 
others,  waited  upon  Bichard  at  his  palace  and  offered  him 
the  crown.  Kichard  pretended  to  be  greatly  surprised  and 
offended.  He  said  he  was  not  ambitious  and  did  not  wish  to 
be  king,  but  would  guard  the  crown  for  his  nephew.  Then 
Buckingham  told  him  that  the  people  of  England  would 
never  consent  to  be  ruled  by  a  man  whose  parents  were  not 
properly  married,  for  that  would  be  contrary  to  law.  Kich- 
ard pretended  to  be  greatly  affected  by  this,  but  he  recovered 
soon,  and  said  that  as  it  was  his  duty  to  obey  the  voice  of  the 
people,  he  would  consent  to  take  the  "  kingdoms  of  England 
and  France,  the  one  to  rule,  and  the  other,  by  God's  grace,  to 
take  again  and  subdue." 

Richard  III.,  1483-1485. 

Death  of  the  Princes.  So  far  Richard  had  gone  without 
opposition,  but  his  treachery  and  cold-blooded  murders 
alarmed  his  followers  among  the  nobles  for  their  own  safety. 
Any  man  who  crossed  his  path  might  be  killed.  Buckingham, 
who  was  descended  from  Edward  III.  and  was  a  near  heir 
to  the  throne,  was  the  first  to  withdraw.  He  had  gone  far 
with  Eichard  in  his  career  of  ambition  and  murder,  but  now 
foresaw  trouble.  There  had  been  made  some  attempts  to 
rouse  the  people  to  release  the  princes.  Such  attempts  were 
certain  to  be  made  when  they  grew  older,  so  Eichard  had  them 
murdered.  Sir  Thomas  More  tells  us  that  two  men  were  sent 
to  their  chamber  at  night  and  smothered  them  in  their  bed. 
Richard  then  gave  out  a  report  that  they  had  mysteriously 
disappeared.  But  no  one  was  deceived,  and  people  were  horri- 
fied that  innocent  children  should  be  murdered.  Long  years 
afterwards  some  workmen  dug  up  the  skeletons  of  two  children 
at  the  foot  of  a  staircase  in  the  Tower. 

Henry  Tudor.  There  was  one  Lancastrian  claimant  to  the 
throne  whom  neither  Edward  IV.  nor  Eichard  III.  was  able 


154  HOUSE  OF  YORK  [1483 

to  reach.  This  was  Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of  Eichmond,  whose 
mother  was  descended  from  John  of  Gaunt.  He  had  long  been 
living  in  exile,  but  Buckingham  now  planned  to  have  him 
return  and  head  an  army  to  depose  Eichard. 

Richard's  Defeat  and  Death  at  Bosworth.  Henry  Tu- 
dor's  first  attempt  to  enter  England  ended  in  failure.  His 
fleet  was  scattered  by  a  storm,  and  Buckingham  was  cap- 
tured and  beheaded.  But  in  the  summer  of  1485  he  came 
again,  landing  at  Milford  Haven  on  the  coast  of  Wales.  As 
Henry's  father  was  a  Welshman,  the  people  readily  joined 
him.  Eichard  mustered  an  army  twice  the  size  of  Henry's. 
But  when  the  two  armies  met  on  Bosworth  field,  Eichard 
saw  that  he  was  betrayed;  for  part  of  his  forces  went  over 
to  the  enemy  and  another  part  refused  to  fight.  Eichard 
and  a  few  faithful  men  charged  the  enemy.  His  quick  eye 
caught  sight  of  his  rival's  standard,  and  with  a  shout  of  "  trea- 
son ! "  he  put  spurs  to  his  horse  and  dashed  on,  hoping  to 
kill  Henry  in  a  hand-to-hand  fight.  The  standard-bearer  fell 
beneath  his  sword,  but  Eichard  was  unhorsed. 

In  Shakespeare's  play,  at  this  point  a  friend  urges  Eichard 
to  retreat,  but  he  replies, 

"  Slave !  I  have  Set  my  life  upon  a  cast, 
And  I  will  stand  the  hazard  of  the  die. 
I  think  there  be  six   Richmonds  in  the  field ; 
Five  have  I  slain  to-day  instead  of  him. 
A  horse !  a  horse !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse !  " 

After  fighting  bravely  on  foot,  Eichard  fell,  bleeding  from 
a  dozen  wounds.  His  battered  crown  was  found  near  by,  and 
was  placed  upon  his  rival's  head  while  the  army  (there  was 
now  but  one)  echoed  the  shout  of  "  Long  live  King  Henry !  n 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  can  you  explain  the  defeat  of  the  English  in  France? 

2.  What  led  to  the  Wars  of  the  Roses?     What  important  results  did 

they  have? 


1485]  RICHARD  III.  155 

3.  Compare  Jack  Cade  and  Wat  Tyler. 

4.  What    led    to    the    uprising    against    Edward    IV.?     Compare    his 

government  with  that  of  Henry  VI. 

5.  Compare   Queen   Margaret  and    Warwick   as   leaders.     Which   had 

the  better  cause?     Why? 

6.  How  did  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  show  the  need  of  a  strong  king? 

7.  Why  did  Warwick  restore  Henry  VI.?     Was  this  wise? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

• 

1.  JOAN  OF  ABC.     Catherwood,  Days  of  Jeanne  d'Arc;  Green,  Short 

History,  pp.  274-279. 

2.  WARWICK,  THE  KING  MAKER.     Creighton,  Stories  of  English  His- 

tory, Ch.  XXVII. ;  Lytton,  Last  of  the  Barons. 

3.  THE  PRINTING  PRESS.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  295-298. 

4.  THE  Two  ROSES.     Church,  Stories  of  English  History,  Ch.  VI.; 

E.  S.  Holt,  Red  and  White. 


Nrvnt —  20, 


VII.    THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOE.1 

A.    THE  BEGINNING  OF  NEW  THINGS. 
Henry  VII.,  1485-1509. 

The  Union  of  York  and  Lancaster  was  accomplished  by 
the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  to  the  throne  and  his  marriage 
with  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  There 
was,  however,  still  living  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
who  had  been  made  Earl  of  Warwick.  Moreover,  there  were 
rumors  afloat  that  Eichard  of  York,  the  younger  of  the  two 
murdered  princes,  was  still  alive.  To  prevent  any  plot  of  the 
Yorkists  to  place  the  Earl  of  Warwick  on  the  throne,  Henry 
confined  him  in  the  Tower. 

Increase  of  the  King's  Power.  In  the  time  of  Henry 
VII.,  the  king  obtained  far  greater  power  than  ever  before, 
chiefly  through  the  weakening  of  the  nobility.  It  was  the 
nobles  who  forced  John  to  sign  the  Great  Charter  and  who, 
with  the  people,  compelled  later  kings  to  recognize  the  power 
of  Parliament.  But  in  the  reigns  of  weak  kings  the  nobles 
and  their  retainers  had  oppressed  the  people,  and  now  the 

»  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 

Owen  Tudor,  m.  Catherine,  widow  of  Henry  V. 
Margaret  Beaufort  (p.  102)  m.  Edmund  Tudor. 

HENRY  VII.,  m.  Elizabeth  of  York  (p.  146) 

(1485-1509)     | 

HENRY  VIII.   (1509-1547)  Margaret,  m.  Mary,  m. 

James  IV.  of  Scotland        Charles,   Duke 

| i 1  |  of  Suffolk 

EDWARD  VI.  MARY  ELIZABETH        James  V-  of  Scotland  | 

(1647-1553)     (1553-1558)       (1558-1603)       ..  I      Ct  Ce5;  m 

Mary   Stuart  Henry    Grey, 

|  Duke  of  Suffolk 

James  VI.  of  Scotland 
and  I.  of  England  (p.  203)    Lady  Jane  Grey 

156 


1485]  HENRY  VII.  157 

people  were  again  ready  to  help  the  king  against  the  nobles, 
as  in  the  days  of  Henry  II.  There  were  also  several  other 
reasons  for  the  weakening  of  the  nobles. 

One  has  been 
already  men- 
tioned, namely, 
the  destruction 
of  many  nobles  by  the  Wars  of 
the  Eoses. 

Another  cause  was  a  change 
in  the  mode  of  fighting.  Dur- 
ing the  Norman  period,  the 
charge  of  a  body  of  armor-clad 
knights  was  irresistible;  but 
English  archers  had  now 

learned  to  shoot  an  arrow  so 

HAND  CANNON — FOURTEENTH 
far    and    so    swift    that    they  CENTURY. 

could  pierce  the  knight's  armor  and  kill  him  before  he  could 
do  them  any  damage. 

Then  the  power  of  the  nobles  was  chiefly  due  to  their 
strong  castles,  which  it  was  very  difficult  to  take  by  any  ma- 
chinery then  known.  But  the  invention  of  gunpowder  and  the 
use  of  cannon  had  changed  this.  We  can  not  say  where  gun- 
powder was  first  used  in  battle.  It  is  said  that  the  English 
used  it  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  to  frighten  the  horses  of  the 
French.  We  know  that  the  Turks  used  cannon  to  batter  down 
the  walls  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  From  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward III.  we  hear  considerable  about  the  use  of  gunpowder 
in  England.  The  smaller  fire-arms  were  crude  and  did  not 
at  once  take  the  place  of  the  bow  and  lance.  But  cannon  were 
made  of  sufficient  power  to  batter  down  stone  walls,  thus 
enabling  the  king  to  destroy  the  castles  of  the  nobles.  As 
cannon  were  very  expensive,  none  but  the  king  could  afford  to 
keep  them. 


158  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1485^ 

The  Law  against  Maintenance  and  Livery  forbade  the 
lords  to  maintain  bands  of  men  wearing  their  uniform.  This 
had  been  a  great  evil  in  the  land  since  the  time  of  Eichard 
II.,  when  the  lords  began  to  hire  retainers.  Henry  VII.  took 
care  that  the  law  was  strictly  enforced.  Any  one  who  broke 
it  was  fined  or  imprisoned.  Henry  once  paid  a  visit  to  his 
friend  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  a  man  who  had  helped  him  to 
defeat  Eichard  at  Bosworth.  In  honor  of  the  king,  the 
earl  had  drawn  up  a  large  body  of  his  retainers  wearing  his 
arms  upon  their  breasts. 

"And  who  are  these,  my  lord  ?"  asked  Henry,  as  he  surveyed 
the  men. 

"  They  are  my  retainers,  and  are  here  to  see  and  honor 
your  Majesty,"  answered  the  earl. 

"I  thank  you  for  your  good  cheer,"  said  the  king,  "but 
I  can  not  endure  to  have  my  laws  broken  in  my  sight.  My 
attorney  will  see  you."  The  earl  was  afterwards  brought 
before  the  king's  court  and  fined  10,000  pounds. 

The  Star  Chamber  Court  was  established  to  bring  power- 
ful offenders  to  justice.  In  this  court  they  could  not  bully 
the  judges  and  juries  as  in  their  own  neighborhoods.  It  took 
its  name  from  the  decorations  on  the  ceiling  of  the  room 
where  it  met.  The  king's  own  judges  and  officers  conducted 
its  business.  Any  nobleman  who  broke  the  laws  or  took  part 
in  rebellions  or  plots  against  the  king  was  tried  and  pun- 
ished with  as  little  fear  as  though  he  had  been  a  peasant.  In 
later  times  this  court  had  to  be  abolished  because  the  kings 
of  that  period  made  it  a  means  of  injustice  and  oppression. 

How  the  King  Raised  Money.  The  Parliament  had 
kept  down  the  power  of  the  king  by  refusing  to  grant  him 
any  money  until  he  had  redressed  the  grievances  from  which 
they  suffered.  But  Henry  adopted  methods  of  raising  money 
which  made  him  independent  of  Parliament,  and  which  also 
kept  those  men  in  subjection  who  were  likely  to  become 


1491]  HENRY  VII.  159 

dangerous.  The  Earl  of  Oxford  was  not  the  only  one  who 
paid  an  enormous  fine  for  keeping  retainers.  The  king  had 
his  agents  keeping  sharp  watch  all  through  the  country  for 
other  offenders,  and  many  a  noble  had  to  give  up  a  large  part 
of  his  fortune  for  breaking  this  law. 

Benevolences;  Morton's  Fork.  Henry  thought  it  bet- 
ter to  offend  a  few  people  by  a  heavy  tax  than  to  offend  the 
whole  people  by  laying  a  general  tax,  so  he  developed  a  sys- 
tem of  benevolences.  The  king's  chief  minister,  Cardinal 
Morton,  had  a  way  of  forcing  these  gifts  that  gave  rise  to 
the  expression  "  Morton's  fork/7  If  he  saw  that  a  man  lived 
in  good  style  and  spent  money  freely,  he  would  say,  "  Surely 
this  man  is  rich  and  can  afford  to  make  a  large  gift  to  the 
king/'  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  saw  that  a  citizen  was 
economical,  he  would  say,  "This  man  is  very  saving,  and 
surely  has  laid  up  a  great  deal  of  money  and  can  well  afford 
to  pay/'  And  so  a  man  was  pretty  certain  to  be  caught  on 
one  prong  of  the  Cardinal's  fork. 

Henry  was  a  lover  of  peace  as  well  as  of  money,  and  took 
part  in  no  wars  of  any  consequence.  The  money  granted  by 
Parliament  for  wars'  was  carefully  stored  away  in  the  royal 
treasury. 

Several  Attempts  were  made  to  Dethrone  Henry. 
The  first  serious  attempt  came  from  the  direction  of  Ireland 
(1487).  The  Yorkists  had  trained  a  certain  Lambert  Sim- 
nel,  the  son  of  a  baker  at  Oxford,  to  act  the  part  of  the  Earl 
of  Warwick,  pretending  that  he  had  escaped  from  the  Tower, 
where  Henry  had  placed  him.  Simnel  was  crowned  at  Dub- 
lin, in  the  English  part  of  Ireland,  where  the  people  strongly 
favored  the  House  of  York.  One  of  the  ministers  of  Eichard 
III.,  named  Lovel,  had  secured  for  him  also  the  help  of  2,000 
German  troops.  The  Irish  and  German  forces  entered  Lan- 
cashire, where  they  expected  to  recruit  an  army.  But  not  an 
Englishman  rose,  and  the  invaders  were  defeated.  Henry,  to 


160  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1487 

show  his  contempt  for  his  rival,  made  him  a  turnspit  in  his 
kitchen.  Lovel  escaped  and  could  not  be  found.  Nearly  two 
hundred  years  afterwards  some  workmen  accidentally  found 
in  an  underground  chamber  at  Minster  Lovel  in  Oxfordshire, 
the  skeleton  of  a  man  seated  in  a  chair  with  his  head  resting 
on  a  table.  It  is  supposed  Lovel  had  been  hidden  there  and 
deserted  by  some  servant  who  was  to  provide  for  him. 

In  1492  another  pretender  appeared,  named  Perkin  War- 
beck,  who  was  claimed  by  his  followers  to  be  Eichard,  the 
younger  son  of  Edward  IV.  So  carefully  had  he  been  pre- 
pared for  the  part  he  played,  that  he  deceived  many.  The 
King  of  Scotland  once  took  up  arms  in  his  behalf.  Then  the 
Cornishmen,  who  had  been  offended  by  a  tax-levy,  joined 
him,  but  were  defeated.  Warbeck  was  captured  and  confined 
in  prison.  Transferred  to  the  Tower,  he  planned  to  escape 
with  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Henry,  anxious  to  have  them  out 
of  the  way,  consented  to  the  execution  of  both,  although  he 
declared  Warbeck  was  "not  worth  a  rope." 

Henry's  throne  being  secure,  his  children  were  sought  in 
marriage  by  other  royal  families.  His  eldest  son,  Arthur, 
married  Catherine  of  Aragon,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Spain. 
Arthur  dying  the  next  year,  negotiations  were  begun  for 
marrying  the  young  widow  to  Henry,  the  second  son  of 
Henry  VII.  The  king's  eldest  daughter,  Margaret,  was  mar- 
ried to  James  IV.,  the  King  of  Scotland. 

Commerce  and  Explorations.  There  was  no  English 
navy  in  the  fifteenth  century  for  the  protection  of  trade,  and 
piracy  was  common.  Merchant  vessels  went  armed.  Pur 
trading  was  now  begun  with  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  and  in 
the  west  of  England  companies  were  formed  to  engage  in 
the  fisheries  around  Iceland.  Domestic  trade  was  protected 
and  it  flourished. 

It  was  during  this  reign  that  Columbus  made  for  Spain 
his  wonderful  westward  voyage  to  what  he  supposed  was 


1509] 


HENRY  VII. 


161 


eastern  Asia.  A  few  years  later,  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian 
merchant,  was  authorized  by  Henry  VII.  to  make  two  Toy- 
ages  (1497  and  1498),  and  on  his  and  his  son  Sebastian's 
discoveries  along  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  England 
later  based  her  claim  to  the  continent.  ^x/?£xvnXltXxc2xLxx(3tx^ 

A  New  Era  begins  with  the  rule  of  the  Tudors.     The  ' 
period  called  the  "Middle  Ages"  was  now  to  end,  and  the 
great  events  which  mark  the  beginning  of  modern  history  had 
already  occurred  at  the  end  of  Henry  VII/s  reign.     The 
Xevr  World  had Jjeen  found.    ,  frunpowder,  the  mariner's  com- 

,    .  Jejj&A<^fcL2.  ~^%£&t4i<y& -a,  ,.     ,    , 

pass,  and  printing  were  m  use.  I  he  age  of  feudalism  had  passed 
away,  and  the  period  of  absolute  monarchy  had  begun  in 
Spain  and  France  as  well  as  in  England.  Besides  these 
events,  the  learning 
of  ancient  Greece  and 
Eome  was  finding  its 
way  into  England. 
The  Turks,  by  the 
capture  of  Constanti- 
nople in  1453,  had 
driven  the  Greek 
scholars  into  Italy, 
where  they  taught  in 
the  universities  and 

schools.  From  Italy  the  influence  of  the  new  learning  spread 
to  England  and  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  Learned  men 
began  to  translate  books  into  English,  and  the  printing  press 
made  it  possible  for  the  people  to  read  them.  An  age  of 
thought,  of  enlightenment,  and  of  progress,  undreamed  of  by 
the  people  of  those  days,  was  soon  to  come. 

Henry's  Tomb.  Henry  built  a  splendid  chapel  on  the 
east  of  Westminster  Abbey  for  his  burial  place.  His  mag- 
nificent tomb,  cut  out  of  black  marble  by  a  noted  Italian 
sculptor,  may  still  be  seen.  He  died  in  1509,  and  his  son, 


TOMB  OF  HENRY  VII. 


162 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 


[1509 


Henry  VIII.,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  a  peaceful  and  pros- 
perous kingdom. 


Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547. 

Henry  VIII.  was  a  talented  and  athletic  young  man,  "  as 
handsome  as  nature  could  make  him."  He  had  frank,  win- 
ning manners,  enjoyed  hunting  and  bowling,  and  in  the  use 
of  the  lance  and  bow  he  could  outshoot  and  outthrow  any 
man  in  England.  He  knew  Latin,  Spanish,  and  French, 
and  had  considerable  musical  ability.  He  retained  the  same 
council,  or  body  of  advisers,  that  his  father  had.  But  there 
were  two  men,  Empson  and  Dudley,  that  were  hated  by  the 

people  because  they  had  been 
employed  by  the  late  king  to 
collect  illegal  taxes.  Although 
they  had  merely  carried  out 
the  king's  orders,  they  were  ac- 
cused and  convicted  of  treason 
and  put  to  death.  The  trial  of 
a  prominent  man  by  judge  and 
jury  had  become  a  mere  farce, 
and  continued  so  throughout 
Henry's  reign,  inasmuch  as 
they  always  decided  disputes 
according  to  the  king's  will 
without  considering  whether  the  defendant  was  guilty  or  inno- 
cent. Henry  now  married  the  Princess  Catherine  of  Aragon, 
his  brother's  widow,  a  marriage  to  which  the  Pope  had  given 
his  consent  by  a  formal  dispensation. 

By  these  measures  the  king's  popularity  was  made  com- 
plete. Leaving  the  cares  of  the  government  to  his  ministers, 
he  now  set  to  work  to  enjoy  the  well-filled  treasury  that  his 
father  had  left  him.  For  two  years,  music,  festivals,  shoot- 


HENRY  VIII. 


1519]  HENRY  VIII.  163 

ing  matches,  tournaments,  and  the  society  of  gay  ladies  and 
gentlemen  occupied  his  time. 

The  Holy  League.  But  Henry  soon  became  ambitious 
to  have  a  hand  in  affairs  outside  of  England,  although  the 
wisest  of  his  councilors  had  learned  that  it  was  best  to 
avoid  being  mixed  up  with  foreign  wars.  At  this  time  Italy 
was  not  one  nation,  like  England,  or  France,  or  Spain,  but 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  states.  Venice  and  Flor- 
ence were  independent  republics.  Spain,  France,  and  the 
rope  ruled  over  parts  of  Italy.  In  1511  the  Pope  formed  the 
Holy  League  to  drive  the  French  out  of  Italy,  and  Henry 
joined  with  Spain  and  Germany  to  help  him.  Henry's  allies 
obtained  what  they  were  seeking,  but  he  himself  spent  a 
great  deal  of  money  and  gained  nothing  of  importance.  He 
did  help  Maximilian,  the  German  Emperor,  to  win  one  battle 
against  the  French  in  Flanders,  "a  greater  victory  than 
which/'  he  wrote  to  Catherine,  "was  never  won  anywhere."! 
The  French  humorously  called  it  the  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs," 
because  their  own  men  ran  away  so  fast. 

Battle  of  Flodden  Field.  The  attack  on  France  stirred 
up  her  old  ally,  Scotland,  and  James  IV.,  who  was  the 
brother-in-law  of  Henry,  led  an  army  into  England.  It  was 
terribly  defeated  through  the  skill  of  the  English  general, 
the  Earl  of  Surrey.  The  Scotch  king,  the  chief  of  his  no- 
bility, and  ten  thousand  men  were  left  dead  upon  the  field. 

Henry  was  shrewd  enough  to  see  that  his  European  allies 
were  making  a  cat's-paw  of  him,  and  he  made  peace  with 
France  for  a  large  sum  of  money.  Soon  afterwards  the  old 
French  king  died,  and  Francis  I.  became  King  of  France. 
In  Spain,  Charles  V.,  the  nephew  of  Queen  Catherine,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne;  he  was  the  ruler  of  the  Netherlands 
also,  and  was  elected  Emperor  of  the  German  states.  These 
three  young  and  ambitious  sovereigns  were  now  leaders  in  the 
affairs  of  Europe. 


1527]  HENRY  VIII.  165 

Wolsey  and  his  Plans.  At  this  time  Thomas  Wolsey  was 
the  chief  minister  of  King  Henry.  He  had  risen  to  high 
position  through  the  church,  which  was  at  that  time  the  only 
way  a  man  of  humble  birth  could  rise  in  public  life.  He  had 
been  a  chaplain  of  Henry  VII.,  and  was  well  thought  of  by 
that  king.  Henry  VIII.  soon  found  that  Wolsey  had  great 
ability,  so  he  made  him  Archbishop  of  York  and  then  chan- 
cellor. 

Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  were  about  to  wage  war  for  the 
control  of  Italy,  and  each  wished  to  enlist  the  "services  of 
Henry.  Francis  invited  Henry  to  a  conference  which  was 
held  near  the  boundary  between  Calais  and  France;  there 
they  entertained  each  other  with  such  lavish  magnificence 
that  the  place  was  named  the  "  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold." 
But  Wolsey,  who  was  ambitious  to  be  chosen  Pope,  persuaded 
Henry  to  ally  himself  with  Charles,  for  he  knew  that  the 
Emperor  could  give  him  more  help  than  the  French  king,  in 
reaching  the  papacy. 

Again  Henry's  allies  were  successful,  while  Henry  gained 
nothing.  And  Wolsey  was  not  elected  Pope.  So  great  did 
the  power  of  Charles  V.  now  become  that  Henry  and  Wolsey 
made  a  new  alliance  with  France.  Their  policy  was  to  main- 
tain the  "  balance  of  power,"  a  plan  which  has  often  been 
followed  since,  and  which  consists  in  the  union  of  weak 
nations  against  one  that  is  too  powerfuL^^^^ 7 


The  New  Learning ;  More ;  'Xolet.  During  Henry's 
time  the  study  of  Greek  was  introduced  into  the  colleges  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  John  Colet,  a  clergyman,  had  stud- 
ied this  language  in  Paris  and  Italy.  Eeturning  to  London, 
he  founded  the  school  at  St.  Paul's.  He  introduced  at  Oxford 
a  new  method  of  treating  the  study  of  the  New  Testament. 
Sir  Thomas  More,  a  famous  lawyer  of  London,  was  also  a 
patron  of  study ;  he  was  a  great  favorite  of  the  king.  More 
and  Colet  invited  a  noted  Dutch  scholar,  Erasmus,  to  England-. 


166  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1514 

and  he  spent  some  time  at  Cambridge,  where  he  prepared  a 
scholarly  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  the  first  ever  printed 
in  both  Greek  and  Latin. 

What  was  often  called  at  the  time  "the  new  learning" 
was  at  first  a  great  revival  of  ancient  learning,  —  especially 
the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  These  languages 
were  very  important  because  they  contained  the  writings  of 
nearly  all  the  learned  men  of  the  past.  But  men  now  began 
to  be  more  active  in  searching  out  the  reasons  for  things. 
On  the  one*  hand,  the  new  learning  led  to  the  philosophy  of 
Bacon,  who  presented  a  method  of  studying  the  natural 
sciences  by  observation  and  experiment.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  led  some  men  to  question  the  authority  of  the  church,  so 
that  later  their  new  religious  teachings  were  sometimes  called 
"the  new  learning"  and  denounced  as  heresy.  More  and 
Colet,  however,  were  good  Catholics,  and  Erasmus,  the  greatest 
leader  in  the  revival  of  learning,  also  remained  in  the  Catholic 
Church. 

The  Protestant  Reformation.  Wyclif  and  the  Lollards 
had  refused  to  believe  certain  doctrines  of  the  church.  Al- 
though compelled  to  be  silent,  the  movement  begun  by  him 
did  not  die  out.  It  spread  to  Bohemia,  Germany,  and  Italy.  S 
In  Germany,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a 
movement  was  begun  by  a  monk,  Martin  Luther,  that  led  to  n^ 
more  serious  consequences.  Luther  had  a  quarrel  with  the 
Pope,  and  finally  declared  that  the  Catholic  Church  did  not 
teach  the  religion  taught  by  Christ  in  the  New  Testament. 
A  general  religious  revolt  was  stirred  up  in  Germany,  which 
led  to  bloody  wars  between  the  Catholic  princes  and  those  who 
favored  the  ideas  of  Luther.  The  last  of  these  wars,  called  the 
"Thirty  Years'  War"  (1618-1648),  ended  in  giving  to  each 
of  the  German  states  the  power  of  choosing  the  religion  its 
people  should  follow. 

During  the  century  from  the  time  of  Luther's  first  protest 


1529]  HENRY  VIII.  167 

in  1517  to  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  "Reforma- 
tion," as  this  revolt  against  the  Catholic  Church  was  called, 
had  spread  to  France,  Sweden,  the  Netherlands,  England,  and 
Scotland.  It  was  attended  by  wars,  massacres,  and  perse- 
cution. People  were  hanged,  tortured,  and  burned  by 
thousands  for  their  religious  opinions,  until  the  world  grew 
tired  of  it.  But  in  all  these  disturbances  politics  and  reli- 
gion were  closely  associated.  Kings  and  governments  in  those 
days  insisted  on  telling  people  what  they  must  accept  in 
church  matters. 

How  Henry  Regarded  Church  Matters.  Henry  was  at 
first  sternly  opposed  to  this  movement  against  the  authority 
of  the  church.  He  wrote  a  reply  to  one  of  Luther's  books, 
and  sent  a  copy  of  it  to  the  Pope.  Pope  Clement  was  so 
pleased  with  it  that  he  gave  Henry  the  title  "  Defender  of  the 
Faith."  Later  on,  as  we  shall  see,  Henry  maintained  his 
right  to  this  title,  only  it  was  not  the  faith  of  the  church,  but 
the  faith  of  Henry  that  he  defended.)  V^' 

The  Question  of  the  King's  Divorce.  After  the  king 
had  been  married  to  Catherine  some  fifteen  years,  he  grew 
tired  of  her  and  wished  that  he  might  marry  a  beautiful  young 
lady  of  his  court,  Anne  Boleyn.  The  church  regarded  mar- 
riage as  a  sacrament  as  well  as  a  contract,  and  no  divorce  was 
granted  to  persons  who  had  been  lawfully  married.  Henry 
now  began  to  assert  that  it  had  been  unlawful  for  him  to 
marry  his  brother's  widow.  The  Pope  had  given  a  dispensa- 
tion, but  Henry  held  that  the  dispensation  had  been  improp- 
erly granted,  and  that  his  marriage  with  Catherine  was  no 
marriage  at  all.  He  therefore  employed  Wolsey  to  obtain 
from  the  Pope  the  desired  declaration  that  the  marriage  was 
invalid.  Wolsey's  mission  was  a  failure;  after  long  delay  a 
papal  court  tried  the  case  in  England,  but  it  did  not  have 
power  to  make  the  declaration,  and  the  Pope  himself  decided 
not  to  make  it. 


168 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 


[1530 


TRIAL  OF  QUEEN  CATHERINE. 

The  king  was  so  angry  at  this  failure  that  he  dismissed 
Wolsey,  took  from  him  all  his  property,  and  finally  ordered 
him  to  prison  on  a  charge  of  treason.  But  on  the  way  to 
London  Wolsey  fell  ill  and  died  at  a  convent  at  Leicester. 
Only  his  death  saved  him  from  execution.  His  fall  from 
power  and  the  king's  ingratitude  had  broken  his  heart,  and, 
as  Shakespeare  puts  it  in  the  play  "  King  Henry  VIIL,"  he 
cried  out  to  his  secretary: 

"  Cromwell,  I  charge  thee,  fling  away  ambition : 
By  that  sin  fell  the  angels ;  how  can  man,  then, 
The  image  of  his  Maker,  hope  to  win  by  it? 
*     *     *     O,  Cromwell,  Cromwell ! 
Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I  served  my  king,  He  would  not  in  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies." 

Henry  next,  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Thomas  Cranmer  of 
Cambridge,  decided  to  inquire  of  the  universities  of  Europe 


1536]  HENRY  VIII.  169 

what  they  thought  about  his  marriage  with  Catherine.  Some 
of  them  gave  an  answer  favorable  to  Henry.  The  king  now 
resolved  to  set  the  Pope  at  defiance.  He  assembled  the  clergy 
and  compelled  them  to  address  him  as  "  Supreme  Head  of 
the  English  Church  and  clergy ."  Next,  he  got  from  Par- 
liament a  law  forbidding  appeals  from  an  English  court  to 
any  authority  outside  of  England.  Cranmer  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  in  his  court  declared  the  marriage 
of  Catherine  void.  Henry  had  already  married  Anne  Boleyn, 
and  a  few  days  after  Cranmer's  decision  she  was  publicly 
crowned.  The  Pope  now  sent  his  decision  to  England,  de- 
claring that  Catherine  was  the  king's  lawful  wife. 

Separation  of  the  Church  from  Rome.  At  the  next  ses- 
sion of  Parliament,  in  1534,  laws  were  passed  forbidding  all 
appeals  and  the  payment  of  money  in  any  way  to  the  Pope. 
Another  law,  called  the  Act  of  Succession,  declared  Henry's 
marriage  with  Catherine  unlawful,  that  with  Anne  lawful, 
and  provided  that  the  children  of  Henry  and  Anne  should 
succeed  to  the  throne.  Another  law,  the  Act  of  Supremacy, 
declared  Henry  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  in  England, 
and  that  any  one  who  questioned  it,  or  refused  to  acknowledge 
it  when  questioned,  was  guilty  of  high  treason.  The  great 
Sir  Thomas  More,  who  had  been  made  Henry's  chancellor, 
and  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Eochester,  refused  to  support 
these  laws  and  were  beheaded.  More  told  the  king  he  was 
willing  to  acknowledge  Anne's  children  to  be  the  lawful  suc- 
cessors to  the  throne,  because  Parliament  had  made  them  so, 
but  he  could  not  admit  that  she  was  the  king's  lawful  wife. 
All  Europe  was  shocked  at  his  execution.  Charles  V.  said 
he  would  rather  have  lost  the  choicest  city  in  his  empire 
than  such  a  friend  as  More. 

The  King's  Later  Marriages.  Anne  was  soon  accused 
of  unfaithfulness  to  her  lord.  Henry  lost  no  time  in  seek- 
ing a  new  divorce,  but  ordered  her  and  five  gentlemen  of  the 


170  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1536 

court,  her  accomplices,  to  execution.  No  sooner  had  their 
heads  rolled  into  the  dust  than  the  king  married  Jane  Sey- 
mour, Anne's  maid  of  honor,  who  died  in  the  following  year. 
The  king  now  commissioned  his  new  minister,  Thomas  Crom- 
well, to  find  him  another  wife.  Cromwell  thought  it  would  be 
a  good  thing  for  Henry  to  marry  Anne  of  Cleves,  a  German 
princess,  to  strengthen  the  friendship  of  England  with  the 
German  Protestants.  He  showed  the  king  her  picture,  which 
represented  her  as  a  very  beautiful  woman.  But  when  Anne 
reached  England,  Henry  discovered  that  she  was  plain.  Six 
months  afterwards  he  divorced  her,  and  before  long  he  had 
Cromwell's  head  cut  off.  In  the  same  year,  the  king  married 
a  beautiful  young  girl  of  his  own  court,  Catherine  Howard, 
but  before  another  year  had  ended,  the  jealous  tyrant  sent 
her  to  the  block.  His  sixth  and  last  wife  was  Catherine  Parr, 
who  lived  in  peace  with  her  despotic  husband. 

The  King  Suppresses  the  Monasteries.  When  Henry 
began  his  reign,  perhaps  one  third  of  the  kingdom  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  church.  The  cathedrals,  monasteries,  chap- 
els, and  abbeys  held  estates,  by  the  income  of  which  they 
were  maintained.  Henry  was  not  pleased  with  the  clergy  and 
monks,  for  they  had  strongly  opposed  him  in  his  religious  rev- 
olution; so  he  set  about  closing  the  monasteries  and  taking 
their  estates  for  himself  and  the  men  who  supported  him. 

Henry  said  that  these  places  were  in  the  possession  of 
vicious  and  ignorant  monks  who  had  entered  monastic  life  on 
account  of  laziness  or  poverty.  He  said  that  their  charities 
supported  a  multitude  of  vagabonds  who  ought  to  be  made 
to  do  honest  labor.  And  more  than  this,  he  called  them  mere 
nests  of  treason,  since  they  opposed  the  laws  passed  by  Parlia- 
ment making  the  king  the  head  of  the  church.  The  fact 
that  they  held  to  the  Pope  rather  than  to  Henry  was  enough 
to  destroy  them. 

Henry's  agent  Cromwell  undertook  the  work  of  "  ref orm/? 


1536] 


HENRY  Vttll. 


171 


as  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  was  called.  The  first 
act  of  Parliament  closed  the  smaller  ones,  but  a  few  years 
later  the  others  also  were  swept  away.  The  king's  agents  vis- 
ited and  inspected  these  institutions  and  were  supposed  to  find 
some  irregularity  in 
their  management  as 
a  just  ground  for 
closing  them.  The 
monks  and  nuns  were 
then  turned  adrift ; 
but  some  were  pen- 
sioned. The  estates  A  RuIXED  ABBEY. 
not  retained  for  the  king's  own  use  were  given  to  his  friends. 
Many  a  noble  family  in  England  dates  the  beginning  of  its 
fortune  from  a  gift  of  monastery  lands.  The  splendid  build- 
ings were  stripped  of  everything  of  value,  the  images  were 
thrown  down,  windows  of  beautiful  stained  glass  were  shat- 
tered, and  only  the  ruined,  moss-grown  walls  now  remain  to 
tell  the  story  of  the  past. 

Insurrection  in  the  North.  The  lower  classes  in  Eng- 
land had  fallen  into  worse  condition  during  Henry's  reign 
than  before.  The  practice  of  changing  farms  into  sheep 
pastures  still  went  on,  leaving  many  of  the  farming  and 
laboring  classes  homeless.  Many  had  lived  on  the  industries 
and  charities  of  the  monasteries ;  and  the  closing  of  these  not 
only  deprived  them  of  that  support,  but  added  to  their  num- 
bers many  vagrant  monks.  A  host  of  30,000  discontented 
'  men  assembled  in  Yorkshire  and  petitioned  the  king  to  restore 
the  religious  houses  and  remit  the  last  tax  levied. 

The  king  replied :  "  How  presumptuous  are  ye,  the  rude 
commons  of  one  shire,  and  one  of  the  most  brute  and  beastly 
of  the  whole  realm,  to  take  upon  you,  contrary  to  God's  law 
and  man's  law,  to  rule  your  prince,  whom  ye  are  bound  to 
obey  and  serve!"  This  insurrection,  sometimes  called  the 


172  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [153G 

"  Pilgrimage  of  Grace/'  was  put  down  with  a  strong  hand  and 
about  a  hundred  of  the  leaders  were  executed. 

The  Ten  Articles  and  the  Six  Articles.  In  1536  the 
king  informed  his  subjects  what  they  might  believe  in  mat- 
ters of  religion.  He  issued  a  creed  of  ten  articles,  and  every 
man  at  the  peril  of  his  head  must  accept  and  obey  them. 
Certain  articles  in  this  creed  favored  the  reformers.  Three 
years  later,  the  king  and  Parliament  issued  a  new  creed  of 
six  articles,  supporting  six  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  With  this  "  whin  of  six  strings  "  he  persecuted  his 
people  until  the  end  of  his  reign.  Any  one  who  disagreed 
with  him,  was  to  lose  his  property  for  the  first  offense;  for 
the  second  he  lost  his  life.  In  two  weeks,  five  hundred  people 
were  arrested,  and  during  the  rest  of  Henry's  life,  which 
stretched  out  eight  years  longer,  twenty-eight  were  put  to 
death. 

Last  Years  of  the  King.  Henry  now  had  three  children : 
Mary,  the  daughter  of  Catherine  of  Spain;  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  Anne  Boleyn;  and  his  only  son,  the  child  of  Jane  Sey- 
mour, who  succeeded  him  as  Edward  VI.  The  king  had 
grown,  in  his  later  years,  to  an  unwieldy  size,  and  suffered 
constantly  from  some  painful  disease.  He  died  in  1547. 
His  reign  is  chiefly  to  be  remembered  for  the  change  he 
made  in  the  government  of  the  church. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  do  you  explain  the  increase  of  royal  power  in  the  time  of 

Henry  VII.? 

2.  Compare   Henry   TII.'s   methods  of  raising  money   with   those   of 

Edward  I. 

3.  With   what   king  may   Henry   Till,   be  compared?     Why   did   he 

persecute  both  Catholics  and  Protestants? 

4.  How  do  you  account  for  the  great  poverty  of  Henry  VIII.'s  time? 

5.  Why  did  Henry  VIII.   set  up  an  independent  church? 

6.  Why  do  we  date  modern  history  from  Henry  VII.? 

7.  What  was  the  New  Learning?     The  Reformation? 


1547]  EDWARD  VI.  173 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  SIR  THOMAS  MORE.     Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  132-144;  Gomme, 

The  Kings'  Story  Book,  Ch.  XXI. 

2.  WOLSEY.     Green,  Short  History,  pp.  325-331. 

3.  THE  FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD.     Morris,  Historical  Tales,  Eng- 

lish, pp.  201-215. 

4.  PEEKIN  WARBECK.     Mary  W.  Shelley,  Perkin  Warleck. 

B.    RELIGIOUS  STRIFE. 

Edward  VI.,  1547-1553. 

Edward  VI.,  a  delicate,  studious  lad,  became  king  at 
the  age  of  nine  years.  He  had  been  carefully  trained  in 
the  new  learning  and  in  the  ideas  of  Protestantism.  As 
soon  as  he  could  write,  he  was  taught  to  keep  a  journal  of 
everything  that  interested  him.  This  journal  is  still  pre- 
served and  shows  that  he  was  very  studious.  Here  is  one  of 
the  questions  given  him  to  study:  "Whether  it  be  better 
for  the  commonwealth  that  the  power  be  in  the  nobility  or  in 
the  people  ?  " 

Edward  Seymour,  Earl  of  Somerset.  Henry  VIII.  had, 
in  his  will,  appointed  a  council  of  sixteen  men,  who  were  to 
rule  until  the  young  king  reached  the  age  of  eighteen.  As 
it  would  not  be  possible  for  so  many  to  agree  upon  a  plan  of 
government,  they  placed  the  power  in  the  hands  of  one  of 
their  number,  the  Earl  of  Somerset,  brother  of  Jane  Seymour, 
the  king's  mother.  There  were  some  very  difficult  questions 
to  settle,  and  Somerset  soon  had  his  hands  full. 

Battle  of  Pinkie.  Henry  VIII.  had  made  an  agreement 
with  some  of  the  Scotch  that  Mary  Stuart,  their  infant 
queen,  should  marry  his  son,  Edward,  and  thus  peacefully 
unite  the  two  kingdoms.  But  when  Somerset  tried  to  have 
them  carry  out  the  agreement,  the  Catholic  party  in  Scot- 
land prevented  it.  Somerset  led  an  army  into  Scotland  to 
enforce  the  marriage,  and  by  the  aid  of  his  cannon  and  mus- 
kets defeated  the  Scotch  with  terrible  loss  at  Pinkie.  This 


174  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1541 

only  made  the  Scotch  more  stubborn  in  their  refusal  to  sur- 
render the  little  five-year-old  queen.  As  one  old  Scotchman 
said :  "  They  misliked  not  the  match,  but  the  manner  of 
the  wooing."  Mary  was  taken  to  France  and  was  soon  mar- 
ried to  the  French  prince. 

Internal  Troubles.  Henry  had  established  an  independ- 
ent church  by  putting  himself  in  the  place  of  the  Pope,  and 
had  destroyed  the  monasteries.  But  most  of  the  doctrines 
and  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church  he  had  left  unchanged. 
The  six  articles  provided  for  the  mass  and  the  confessional, 
and  forbade  the  marriage  of  priests.  The  people  of  England 
were  now  divided  on  this  question  of  doctrine.  In  the  north- 
ern and  western  counties  they  wanted  to  keep  the  Catholic 
faith  entire,  while  in  the  east  and  south  the  reformers  would 
do  away  with  it  all  and  have  a  simple  service  of  song,  prayers, 
and  preaching,  in  English. 

Besides  the  quarrel  over  church  reform,  there  were  in- 
creasing difficulties  between  the  farmers  and  the  wealthy  land- 
holders about  the  inclosing  of  lands  and  the  rise  in  rents. 
And  most  serious  of  all,  the  decline  of  farming  had  made 
food  scarce,  and  many  of  the  poorer  classes  were  in  distress. 
Prices  were  high  on  this  account,  and  also  because  the  late 
king,  to  enrich  himself,  had  made  the  coin  of  inferior  quality. 
Four  shillings  would  not  buy  so  much  as  one  would  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VII.  So  many  laborers  were  out  of  work 
that  wages  were  low  even  when  paid  in  this  debased  coin. 

The  Vagrant  Act  was  passed  in  the  first  year  of  Edward's 
reign.  It  provided  that  any  able-bodied  man  who  was  per- 
sistently idle  should  be  branded  with  the  letter  V,  and  made 
a  slave  for  two  years;  if  he  then  refused  to  work,  he  should 
be  made  a  slave  for  life.  But  in  spite  of  the  law  the  va- 
grants and  paupers  increased.  Besides  the  fanners  and  la- 
borers thrown  out  of  work  by  the  inclosing  of  lands,  thou- 
sands of  retainers  whom  the  lords  had  been  obliged  to  dismiss 


1553]  EDWARD  VI.  175 

were  thrown  upon  the  country;  and,  finally,  the  monks  and 
laborers  who  had  formerly  been  supported  on  the  estates 
of  the  church  were,  by  the  closing  of  the  monasteries,  left 
homeless  and  idle.  The  vagrant  law  could  not  make  men 
work  when  there  was  no  work  to  be  done. 

An  Increase  in  Criminals  came  with  this  lack  of  work. 
Many  of  the  vagrants  became  thieves  and  robbers.  The 
roads  were  beset  with  highwaymen.  "  In  London,"  a  traveler 
writes,  "  people  are  taken  up  every  day  by  dozens,  yet  for  all 
this  they  never  cease  to  rob  and  murder  in  the  streets."  The 
severest  laws  did  not  check  them.  It  was  said  that  "  a  man 
who  would  in  France  be  whipped,  would  in  England  be 
hanged.  In  truth  there  were  two  sorts  of  punishment,  to  be 
hanged  and  to  be  beheaded,  and  evil-doers  gained  as  much 
by  doing  little  evil  as  great."  These  evils  continued  to  trou- 
ble England  for  many  years.  ,. 

Progress  of  the  English  Reformation.  Somerset,  who 
was  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  the  Protestant  party,  or- 
dered the  churches  stripped  of  images  and  pictures.  The 
stained  glass  windows  were  replaced  with  plain  ones,  the 
altars  were  pulled  down,  the  walls  were  whitewashed,  and  the 
Ten  Commandments  written  on  them.  The  vestments  of  the 
priests  and  the  furniture  of  the  altars  were  destroyed.  Cran- 
mer  and  a  committee  of  clergymen  compiled  the  prayer  book, 
which  took  the  place  of  the  Latin  service.  A  law,  called  the 
Act  of  Uniformity,  compelled  the  use  of  the  prayer  book  in 
all  the  churches  in  England.  The  clergy  were  allowed  to 
marry.  In  the  last  year  of  Edward's  reign,  the  doctrines 
and  teachings  of  the  church  were  expressed  in  forty-two  ar- 
ticles, which  were  some  years  later  reduced  to  thirty-nine; 
these  thirty-nine  articles  of  belief  are  still  the  creed  and  prac- 
tice of  the  English,  or  Anglican,  Church,  known  also  as  the 
Episcopal  Church. 

King    Edward's    Schools.     The    monasteries    did   much 


176  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1549 

good  in  providing  instruction  for  the  poor,  and  their  loss  left 
the  children  without  means  of  education.  To  take  their 
place,  a  part  of  the  money  that  came  to  the  crown  through 
their  suppression  was  used  in  establishing  forty  grammar 
schools  and  a  number  of  hospitals  in  different  parts  of  Eng- 
land. As  the  young  king  favored  this  project,  these  schools 
have  since  been  known  as  King  Edward's  Schools. 

Insurrections.  A  revolt  in  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  was 
caused  by  forcing  the  English  prayer  book  upon  the  Catho- 
lic people.  One  Sunday  in  the  church  of  a  little  village, 
when  the  English  service  was  read  for  the  first  time,  the 
people  compelled  the  priest  to  put  on  his  robes  and  conduct 
the  mass  in  Latin.  The  revolt  spread  fast,  but  the  insur- 
gents were  quickly  put  down. 

In  Norfolk  16,000  men  gathered  under  the  lead  of  Eobert 
Ket,  a  tanner.  They  proceeded  to  break  down  the  hated 
fences  and  to  kill  the  fat  sheep  and  deer  within.  This  revolt 
seems  to  have  been  provoked  by  the  general  poverty  and  dis- 
tress of  the  poorer  classes. 

In  the  suppression  of  these  two  insurrections,  more  than 
6,000  people  were  slain  or  hanged. 

Somerset  and  Northumberland.  Somerset  sympathized 
with  the  people  and  was  slow  in  taking  severe  measures  to  put 
down  the  Norfolk  revolt.  His  rival  in  the  council  was  John 
Dudley,  afterwards  created  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who 
now  succeeded  in  driving  him  out  of  office.  Later  Somerset 
was  executed  on  a  charge  of  trying  to  regain  his  power. 

Attempt  to  Change  the  Succession.  Northumberland 
was  even  more  determined  than  Somerset  to  wipe  out  the 
Catholic  power  in  England.  The  king's  health  was  feeble, 
and  under  an  act  of  Parliament  both  his  sisters  had  been 
placed  in  the  line  of  succession,  so  that  on  his  death  the  crown 
would  go  to  the  Princess  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Catherine, 
a  determined  Catholic.  The  council  had  tried  in  vain  to 


1553]'  MARY  I.  177 

make  her  give  up  her  religion  and  become  Protestant,  but 
she  steadfastly  refused.  When  Cranmer  urged  her  to  ac- 
cept the  "  Word  of  God,"  she  replied,  "  I  know  not  what  you 
mean  by  the  Word  of  God,  since  what  is  the  Word  of  God 
now  was  not  so  in  my  father's  time." 

After  Northumberland  came  into  power  he  formed  a  plan 
to  pass  over  the  king's  half-sisters,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and 
give  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey,  who  had  married  his  own 
son,  Guildford  Dudley.  Lady  Jane  was  the  granddaughter 
of  the  Princess  Mary,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  Northumber- 
land persuaded  Edward  to  make  a  will  bequeathing  the  crown 
to  Jane,  although  he  must  have  known  that  only  the  Parlia- 
ment could  declare  the  succession. 

One  day  in  1553  Lady  Jane  was  informed  that  Edward 
was  dead  and  that  she  was  to  be  queen.  She  was  only  six- 
teen years  of  age,  beautiful,  and  remarkable  for  her  learning 
and  accomplishments.  She  cared  only  for  her  books  and  her 
husband,  and  begged  to  be  left  with  them.  But  her  father- 
in-law  was  determined  to  sacrifice  her  to  his  ambitious  plans, 
which  never  had  any  chance  of  success.  Protestants  and 
Catholics  united  to  defeat  him,  and  he  had  scarcely  a  dozen 
supporters.  The  Parliament  declared  in  favor  of  Mary,  and 
the  people  of  London  at  once  gave  her  their  allegiance.  Nor- 
thumberland and  two  others  were  executed,  and  Lady  Jane 
Grey  and  her  husband  were  sent  to  the  Tower,  there  to  wait 
until  the  same  fate  should  overtake  them.  \^ 

Mary  I.,  1553-1558. 

The  First  Woman  to  Rule  England  was  Mary  Tudor. 
She  was  a  plain,  sickly  woman,  somewhat  dull,  and  came  to 
the  throne  at  the  mature  age  of  thirty-seven.  Her  youth  had 
been  blighted  and  unhappy  on  account  of  her  mother's  unjust 
divorce  and  consequent  disgrace.  She  was  a  devout  and  faith- 
ful Catholic,  and  believed  that  her  one  duty  as  sovereign 


178  THE  HOUSE  OP  TUDOR  [1553 

was  to  restore  the  Catholic  form  of  worship  and  the  rule  of 
the  Pope.  Beyond  this  she  saw  little  and  understood  little 
of  the  needs  of  her  people'.  She  had  the  Tudor  determina- 
tion, but  none  of  the  Tudor  statesmanship  that  Henry  had 
exhibited.  It  was  a  time  when  it  was  very  difficult  to  act 
wisely.  The  people  were  divided  on  the  question  of  reli- 
gion, and  the  idea  that  differences  in  religious  belief  should 
be  tolerated  was  then  almost  undreamed  of.  The  great 
kings  of  England,  those  who  had  governed  most  success- 
fully, had  consulted  the  wishes  of  the  people ;  but  under 
the  Tudors  it  had  become  the  custom  to  refer  everything 
to  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  Mary's  first  care,  therefore, 
was  to  have  Parliament  repeal  the  laws  that  gave  coun- 
tenance to  Protestantism,  and  to  restore  the  Catholic  form 
of  worship.  Most  of  the  people  received  it  back  gladly, 
and,  except  in  some  of  the  larger  towns,  no  complaints  were 
heard.  Next  the  married  clergymen  were  made  to  resign 
their  places,  and  the  foreign  reformers  were  banished  from 
England.  But  the  monastery  lands  were  left  in  the  hands  of 
their  new  owners. 

Spanish  Influence.  The  Protestant  princes  of  Germany 
had  made  an  alliance  with  France  against  Charles  V.  and  the 
Catholic  princes.  Both  parties  now  sought  the  alliance  of 
England.  The  French  and  Spanish  ambassadors  were  at  the 
English  court,  each  striving  to  gain  favor  with  the  new  queen. 
Charles's  minister  proposed  that  Mary  marry  Philip,  the  heir 
to  the  throne  of  Spain.  The  queen  saw  his  portrait  and  fell 
in  love  with  him,  and  from  that  moment  she  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  Spanish  power. 

Wyatt's  Rebellion.  But  the  English  had  no  liking  for 
Spain,  and  still  less  did  they  like  Philip  personally.  The 
Commons  petitioned  the  queen  to  choose  some  other  husband, 
but  they  received  a  sharp  reproof.  Immediately  afterwards, 
in  the  central  and  southern  counties  where  the  Protestants 


1554] 


MARY  I. 


179 


were  strong,  an  insurrection  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
posing Mary  and  putting  her  sister,  Elizabeth,  on  the  throne. 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  was  to  rouse  the  men  of  Kent,  while  his 
confederates  were  to  join  him  with  troops  from  other  coun- 
ties. But  they  failed  to  appear  and  Wyatt  was  left  alone. 


QUEEN  MART  SIGNING  DEATH  WARRANT  OP  LADY  JANE  GREY. 

For  a  time  it  looked  as  though  he  would  succeed.  The  Lon- 
don troops  sent  against  him  changed  sides,  and  with  prompt- 
ness and  prudence  he  might  have  gained  the  city.  But  Mary 
was  roused.  She  appealed  to  the  London  people  in  a  stirring 
speech  and  threw  herself  upon  their  protection.  She  prom- 


180  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1554 

ised  not  to  marry  without  the  consent  of  Parliament.  The 
next  day  25,000  men  enlisted,  and  Wyatt,  though  he  entered 
London  and  fought  till  almost  deserted,  was  taken.  Lady 
Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  were  now  executed,  along  with 
Wyatt  and  about  one  hundred  others.  An  effort  was  made  to 
connect  Elizabeth  with  the  plot,  but  no  proof  could  be  found 
against  her  and  she  was  acquitted. 

The  next  Parliament  consented  to  Mary's  marriage  with 
Philip,  but  did  not  give  him  any  power  in  the  government. 
The  marriage  took  place  in  July,  1554.  It  assured  Charles 
that  England  would  not  join  France  against  him.  But  Philip 
did  not  love  his  wife,  who  was  much  older  than  himself. 
After  a  few  months'  stay  in  England,  he  went  away,  leaving 
her  to  rule  alone. 

Restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Mary  had  attained 
one  of  the  great  desires  of  her  heart  —  Philip  for  a  husband. 
She  was  now  to  attempt  to  gain  the  other  —  the  restoration 
of  all  England  to  the  rule  and  religion  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Cardinal  Pole,  who  had  been  outlawed  by  Henry  VIII.  for 
refusing  to  acknowledge  him  as  the  head  of  the  church,  now 
returned  to  England  as  the  Pope's  legate.  The  Pope  was 
again  recognized  as  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church. 

This  was  an  age  when  one's  religion  was  considered  part 
of  one's  politics.  Those  who  opposed  the  state  religion  were 
generally  the  enemies  of  the  government  and  were  treated  as 
enemies.  So  Mary  and  the  Parliament  revived  the  old  laws 
of  Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V.  against  heretics. 

The  chief  Protestant  teachers  were  condemned  to  be  burned 
in  the  places  where  they  had  taught.  Nearly  three  hundred 
persons  were  put  to  death.  Cranmer,  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  author  of  the  prayer  book ;  Ridley,  Bishop 
of  London ;  and  Latimer,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  were  the  most 
distinguished  victims. 

The  persecution  of  Mary's  time  was  due  largely  to  Philip, 


1558]  MARY  I.  181 

who  was  narrow  and  cruel  by  nature.  "  Better  not  rule  at  all 
than  rule  over  heretics,"  was  his  motto. 

Close  of  Mary's  Reign.  In  1557,  to  please  .her  husband, 
now  King  Philip  II.,  Mary  joined  Spain  in  a  war  against 
France.  The  French  replied  by  seizing  Calais,  the  only  pos- 
session left  to  England  on  the  continent.  Mary's  English 
patriotism  was  deeply  wounded.  "  When  I  die/7  said  she,  "  you 
will  find  Calais  written  on  my  heart." 

In  Mary's  eagerness  to  free  England  from  heresy,  she  had 
neglected  other  things.  Pirates  swarmed  along  the  coasts. 
Fortresses  were  unrepaired.  There  was  no  money  in  the 
treasury.  Commerce  had  almost  ceased  on  account  of  wars 
and  pirates.  The  people  were  weary  of  Mary  and  her  rule. 
Her  husband  had  deserted  her,  and  the  poor  queen,  long 
troubled  by  disease,  and  now  prostrated  by  the  loss  of  Calais, 
died  within  the  year.  ^X 

QUESTIONS   FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Enumerate  the  effects  of  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries. 

2.  Why  did  the  people  oppose  the  marriage  of  Mary  and  Philip  ? 

3.  Why  was  England   badly  governed    in    Edward    VI. 's   time?    In 

Mary's  time  ? 

4.  Why  were  the  radical  reformers  unwise  ?     What  proves  their  folly? 

5.  What  causes  led  to  the  Vagrant  Act  ?     Why  was  it  unjust  ? 

6.  In  what  way  did  the  poor  suffer  during  this  period  ? 


TOPICS   FOR   HOME   READING. 

1.  LADY  JANE  GRET.     Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  History,  IV.  (see 

index)  ;   Froude,  History  of  England,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  16-43,  180- 
184. 

2.  EDWARD,  THE  BOY  KING.     Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  History, 

IV.   (see  index)  ;  Clemens,  The  Prince  and  the  Pauper. 

3.  PERSECUTION  UNDER  TUDOR  SOVEREIGNS.     E.  S.  Holt,  All  for  the 

Best. 

4.  PHILIP  AND  MARY.     Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  History,  IV. 


J.82 


THE   HOUSE   OF  TUDOR 


[1558 


C.    GROWTH  OF  ENGLISH  POWEE. 
Elizabeth,  1558-1603. 

How  Elizabeth  Ruled  England.  The  reign  of  Good 
Queen  Bess,  as  she  has  been  called  by  her  admirers,  is  known 
as  the  Elizabethan  Age,  In  literature  Shakespeare,  Spenser, 

and  many  other  lights  con- 
tributed to  the  glory  of  the 
time,  while  the  group  of  bril- 
liant statesmen,  and  the  num- 
ber of  daring  adventurers  and 
seamen  added  great  luster  to 
the  English  name.  Mary's 
ruling  idea  had  been  to  restore 
the  Catholic  religion  to  Eng- 
land, while  Elizabeth  strove 
to  make  her  country  power- 
ful and  rich.  The  navy  of 
England  became  the  strong- 
est in  the  world,  and  as  a 
result,  commerce  and  manufacture  made  great  progress.  A 
marked  improvement  took  place  in  the  home  life  of  the  people 
as  they  applied  themselves  anew  to  manufacture  and  farming. 
There  is  much  truth  in  the  flattering  prophecy  made  of  her 
by  Archbishop  Cranmer  in  Shakespeare's  play  "  King  Henry 
VIII.": 

"  She  shall  be  loved  and  feared ;  her  own  shall  bless  her ; 
Her  foes  shake  like  a  field  of  beaten  corn, 
And  hang  their  heads  with  sorrow ;  good  grows  with  her. 
In  her  days  every  man  shall  eat  in  safety 
Under  his  own  vine  what  he  plants ;  and  sing 
The  merry  songs  of  peace  to  all  his  neighbors." 

Like  Henry  VII.,  Elizabeth  had  gained  wisdom  from  her 
misfortunes.  She  had  quietly  watched  the  troubles  of  Mary's 


ELIZABETH. 


1559]  ELIZABETH  183 

reign,  and  had  been  too  prudent  to  connect  herself  with  them. 
She  thought  it  better  to  keep  her  head  on  her  shoulders  than 
to  take  sides  in  a  quarrel  that  was  sure  to  turn  out  badly, 
whichever  side  triumphed.  No  one  knew  what  her  policy 
would  be  in  church  matters,  although  it  was  known  she  leaned 
toward  the  side  of  the  reformers. 

Coronation.  "It  is  the  Lord's  doing,  it  is  marvelous  in 
our  eyes,"  she  said,  when  the  death  of  her  sister  made  her 
Queen  of  England.  London  was  gorgeous  with  decoration 
and  pageant  on  the  coronation  day.  As  the  procession  moved 
from  the  Tower  to  Westminster,  a  little  child,  representing 
Truth,  let  down  a  Bible  by  a  silken  cord  into  her  carriage. 
The  queen  kissed  the  book  and  thanked  the  city  for  the  gift, 
saying,  "  I  shall  be  a  most  diligent  reader  thereof "  An 
English  prayer  book,  afterwards  presented  to  her,  she  laid 
aside  with  anger. 

Her  Laws  Concerning  the  Church.  About  half  the 
people  of  England  at  this  time  would  have  liked  to  continue 
to  worship  as  their  Catholic  fathers  did.  A  small  number 
wanted  to  worship  as  they  did  in  the  English  Church  of  Ed- 
ward's time.  A  much  larger  number,  who  were  afterwards 
called  Puritans,  opposed  the  ceremonies  of  both  the  Catholic 
and  the  English  churches,  and  wanted  the  government 
to  leave  them  free  to  worship  in  their  own  way.  But  the 
P^iianient  decided  that  the  queen  must  be  the  "  Supreme 
Governor  of  the  Eealm  "  in  church  matters  as  well  as  in  other 
things.  They  changed  Cranmer's  prayer  book  by  leaving  out 
passages  that  were  most  offensive  to  the  Catholics.  This 
book  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  the  service  of  all  the  churches 
in  England,  under  grave  penalties  for  disobeying  the  order, 
and  with  some  changes  it  is  still  used  in  the  English  Church. 
Those  clergymen  who  would  not  obey  the  Acts  of  Suprem- 
acy and  Uniformity  were  dismissed,  and  others  appointed 
in  their  places.  Though  both  Catholics  and  Protestants 


184  THE    HOUSE   OF   TUDOR  [1559 

declared  that  the  queen  was  going  straight  to  destruction,  she 
continued  in  her  course. 

Before  long,  severe  laws  were  made  against  Catholics  and 
other  dissenters  from  the  established  religion.  Historians 
have  called  Elizabeth's  predecessor  "  Bloody  Mary,"  because 
she  persecuted  heretics.  But  Elizabeth's  own  hands  were  not 
spotless.  As  we  shall  see,  nearly  two  hundred  Catholics  were 
put  to  death  in  England  during  her  reign.  Under  her,  also, 
the  torture  was  frequently  used  to  force  confessions  from  the 
accused,  whereas  under  Mary  it  had  scarcely  ever  been  re- 
sorted to. 

How  the  Queen  Kept  Peace  with  Foreign  Nations. 
Elizabeth,  aided  by  her  able  ministers,  Cecil,  Bacon,  and 
Walsingham,  was  skillful  in  diplomacy; — that  is,  she  could 
get  what  the  nation  wanted  without  fighting  for  it.  She  was 
able  and  energetic  like  her  father,  and  could  decide  promptly 
and  act  boldly  in  time  of  danger.  But  she  put  off  mak- 
ing up  her  mind  as  long  as  possible,  and  was  ready  to 
change  it  as  soon  as  made  up.  If  a  measure  she  adopted 
turned  out  badly,  she  would  declare  she  had  never  authorized 
it.  She  would  make  promises  that  she  never  intended  to  ob- 
serve, would  forsake  her  friends,  lie  when  it  served  her  pur- 
pose, and  could  even  strike  her  courtiers  and  swear  if  she  felt 
so  inclined. 

Her  plan  was  to  keep  her  enemies  divided.  In  Scotland 
and  France  there  was  the  same  division  into  religious  factions 
as  there  had  been  in  England.  When  the  Protestant  party 
in  those  countries  was  in  danger  of  being  subdued,  Elizabeth 
would  furnish  it  just  enough  help  to  enable  it  to  keep  the 
Catholic  party  busy.  At  first  Spain  was  friendly,  and  Eliza- 
beth did  not  interfere  when  King  Philip  II.  tried  to  force 
the  Catholic  religion  upon  his  Protestant  subjects  in  the 
Netherlands;  but  later  she  sent  help  to  them  also.  As  her 
enemies  were  thus  occupied  with  troubles  at  home,  they  were 


1581] 


ELIZABETH 


185 


unable  to  attack  England  until  the  country  had  grown  united 
and  strong. 

The  Queen's  Proposed  Marriage.  At  the  beginning  of 
her  reign,  the  Parliament  petitioned  the  queen  to  choose  a 
husband,  and  she  promised  to  do  so  when  it  should  be  for  the 
advantage  of  the  country.  But  she  never  could  make  up  her 
mind  which  suitor  to  choose.  Philip  II.  proposed  first,  hop- 
ing by  marrying  Elizabeth  to  keep  England  on  the  side  of 

Spain.  His  offer  was  de- 
clined, but  she  considered 
other  candidates  that  he  pro- 
posed. In  1581,  she  gave  the 
people  to  understand  that  she 
would  marry  the  Duke  of  An- 
jou  in  order  to  unite  France, 
England,  and  the  Nether- 
lands against  Spain.  It  is 
not  likely  she  intended  to 
marry  the  duke,  but  perhaps 
she  wanted  to  find  out  what 
her  people  thought  about  a 
French  marriage.  A  young 
lawyer,  named  Stubbs,  wrote 
a  pamphlet  ridiculing  the 
carriage  in  a  manner  more  insolent  than  polite.  His  book 
was  destroyed  and  his  right  hand  cut  off.  But  he  waved  his 
hat  with  his  left,  and  cried,  "  God  save  Queen  Elizabeth ! " 

Her  great  desire  was  to  keep  England  at  peace.  When  her 
councilors  talked  in  a  warlike  way,  she  would  bring  her  fist 
down  on  the  table,  exclaiming,  "  No  war !  my  Lords,  no  war !  " 
If  her  marriage  had  been  necessary  to  the  peace  and  safety  of 
England,  Elizabeth  might  have  married,  but  as  long  as  it  was 
not,  she  preferred  many  suitors  to  one  husband,  and  delighted 
in  hearing  their  flattery,  and  in  keeping  them  in  suspense. 


PHILIP  II. 


186  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [l->47 

In  order  to  understand  the  events  of  Elizabeth's  reign  we 
must  know  something  of  the  struggle  over  religion  that  was 
going  on  in  the  neighboring  countries.X 

John  Knox  in  Scotland.  A  struggle  between  Scottish 
Catholics  and  reformers  had  been  in  progress  during  the  reigns 
of  Edward  VI.  and  Mary.  Mary  of  Guise,  mother  of  Mary 
Stuart,  ruled  the  country  as  regent,  and  tried  to  keep  the  peo- 
ple faithful  to  the  Catholic  Church.  But  in  Scotland  the  kings 
never  had  so  much  power  as  in  England,  and  she  was  unable 
to  restrain  the  reformers.  An  insurrection  was  brought  on  by 
the  attempt  of  the  regent  to  punish  the  preachers  who  would 
not  obey  the  order  to  return  to  the  Catholic  worship. 

The  most  noted  of  the  Scotch  reformers  was  John  Knox,  a 
native  of  Glasgow.  For  his  part  in  the  insurrection  he  was 
sent  to  the  French  galleys,  but  he  escaped  and  became  a  pupil 
of  the  French  reformer,  John  Calvin,  at  Geneva.  In  1559 
Knox  returned  to  Scotland.  He  was  a  man  of  ready  speech, 
terribly  in  earnest,  and  he  readily  obtained  the  attention  of 
the  people.  He  preached  a  fierce  sermon  at  Perth  on  idolatry, 
and  the  people  broke  into  the  churches  and  cathedrals  and 
stripped  them  of  the  beautiful  pictures,  images,  and  altars 
with  which  they  were  furnished.  The  movement  spread 
through  the  country,  and  the  people  rose  in  arms.  They 
besieged  the  regent  and  deposed  her.  When  French  soldiers 
were  brought  in  to  subdue  them,  they  called  on  Elizabeth  for 
help.  Thus  they  were  found  asking  their  old  enemy,  England, 
to  help  drive  out  their  old  friend,  France.  Elizabeth  helped 
them  drive  out  the  French,  on  the  condition  that  they  should 
be  obedient  to  their  queen,  Mary  Stuart. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Mary's  husband,  King  Francis 
II.  of  France,  had  died  soon  after  his  coronation,  and  she 
was  now  to  return  to  Scotland  to  rule  as  queen.  She  felt 
very  sad  to  leave  the  gay  and  beautiful  Paris,  where  she  had 
grown  up  and  married.  "  Farewell !  dear  France !  "  she  cried, 


1567]  ELIZABETH  18? 

as  the  ship  sailed  out  into  the  mists  of  the  North  Sea,  "I 
shall  never  see  thee  more."  It  was  indeed  her  last  farewell  to 
France.  To  Elizabeth,  Mary's  coming  brought  no  end  of  trou- 
ble,, for  Mary  and  the  Catholic  party  claimed  that  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn  was  not  lawful,  and 
that  Elizabeth  had  no  right  to  her  throne.  Mary,  being  the 
granddaughter  of  Henry  VIII.'s  sister  Margaret,  was,  ac- 
cording to  this  claim,  the  lawful  Queen  of  England.  Eliza- 
beth did  not  intend  to  allow  Mary  to  reach  Scotland  till  she 
should  sign  the  treaty  which  had  been  made  with  the  Scotch 
reformers,  acknowledging  Elizabeth's  right  to  the  English 
throne;  but  Mary  refused  to  sign,  and  succeeded  in  reaching 
Scotland  in  safety. 

Mary  began  her  reign  well,  and  made  many  of  the  rough 
Scots  her  friends.  It  was  her  plan,  after  getting  firm  control 
of  affairs  at  home,  to  call  upon  Spain  and  France  to  join  her 
in  a  war  on  England.  But  she  soon  got  into  difficulties.  She 
married  her  cousin,  Lord  Darnley,  who  was  such  a  foolish  and 
contemptible  man  that  she  soon  came  to  despise  him.  Her 
friendship  for  her  foreign  secretary,  Eizzio,  made  Darnley 
angry,  and  one  day  he  and  some  friends  of  his  burst  into 
Mary's  presence,  and  stabbed  Eizzio  to  death  before  her  eyes. 
After  this  a  rough  Scotch  lord,  named  Bothwell,  became 
her  chief  adviser.  One  night  the  house  in  which  Darnley 
was  sleeping  was  blown  into  the  air  by  a  blast  of  gunpowder. 
He  was  not  hurt  by  the  explosion,  but  while  running  away 
was  met  by  armed  men  and  murdered.  Bothwell  and  Mary 
were  afterwards  married. 

The  hostile  Scotch  nobles  rose  up  against  Mary.  They 
captured  her  and  shut  her  up  in  Loch  Leven  Castle.  They 
made  her  young  sou,  James  VI.,  king,  and  chose  her  half- 
brother,  Murray,  to  rule  until  he  grew  up.  Mary  soon  es- 
caped from  her  prison  and  fled  to  England,  begging  Eliza- 
beth to  help  her  get  back  her  throne  But.  some  people  ao 


188 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 


[1567 


CAPTURE  OF  MARY  STUART  BY  THE  SCOTS. 

cused  her,  as  well  as  Bothwell,  of  Darnley's  murder.  Eliza- 
beth therefore  refused  to  help  her,  and  gave  her  to  an  English 
noble  to  keep  as  a  prisoner.  After  being  moved  from  one 
place  to  another,  she  was  at  last  confined  in  Fotheringay 
Castle. 

The  Enmity  of  Spain.  Philip  II.  ruled  over  the  Nether- 
lands, Spain,  and  Italy,  besides  many  American  colonies,  from 
which  he  received  great  treasures  of  gold  and  silver.  He  was 
offended  by  Elizabeth's  policy  of  encouraging  his  foes,  and  his 
enmity  was  increased  by  the  seizure  of  five  treasure  ships 
belonging  to  Spain  that  had  put  into  the  harbor  of  Plymouth- 


1586]  ELIZABETH  189 

The  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  had  long  been  the  richest 
in  Europe.  They  were  inhabited  by  manufacturers  and  mer- 
chants, and  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of  governing  them- 
selves. Philip's  determination  to  enforce  in  them  the  decrees 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  together  with  their  fears  of  Spanish 
domination,  provoked  a  fierce  and  determined  resistance  which 
all  Philip's  power  could  not  crush.  Their  heroic  leader,  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  was  killed  by  a  paid  assassin  of  Philip,  and 
the  sovereignty  was  offered  to  Elizabeth  and  declined  by  her. 
The  cause  went  on  many  years  till  the  Dutch  provinces  be- 
came a  free  republic. 

In  France  the  two  religions  had  been  waging  a  bloody  civil 
war.  Philip  had  joined  the  Catholic  party  there  to  keep  the 
French  Protestants,  or  Huguenots,  as  they  were  called,  from 
helping  the  Dutch.  This  forced  Elizabeth  to  send  aid  to 
Holland;  for  if  Philip  should  conquer  the  Dutch,  he  would 
join  France  in  attacking  England,  and  attempt  to  put  Mary 
on  the  throne.  An  army  was  sent  under  the  Earl  of  Leices- 
ter. He  was  a  vain  and  haughty  man,  with  no  ability,  and 
accomplished  little.  In  the  attack  on  Zutphen,  his  gallant 
nephew,  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  fell,  the  noblest  gentleman  of 
England.  He  was  author,  statesman,  and  scholar.  His  noble 
character  is  exhibited  in  the  last  action  of  his  life.  When 
he  was  lying  wounded  upon  the  battlefield,  a  cup  of  water 
was  offered  him;  but  seeing  another  suffering  soldier  near 
him,  he  said,  "  Take  it ;  thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine." 

Rise  of  the  English  Navy.  But  England  had  begun  an 
attack  on  Philip  which  threatened  to  ruin  his  nearly  exhausted 
treasury.  English  sailors  were  beginning  to  cruise  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  seize  the  Spanish 
treasure  ships  from  America. 

Captain  John  Hawkins  began  the  African  slave  trade  in 
1562.  He  carried  the  slaves  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  ex- 
changed them  for  sugar,  ginger,  pearls,  and  hides,  which  found 

NlVER l» 


190 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 


[1564 


a  ready  sale  in  Europe.     The  queen  herself  invested  in  his 
second  voyage  and  shared  the  profits. 

Francis  Drake  took  a  shorter  road  to  wealth.  With  five 
ships  he  set  sail  for  South  America  in  1577.  He  coasted 
southward,  and  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  Off 
Chile,  he  took  a  Spanish  treasure  ship,  and  further  north  he 
overhauled  the  great  treasure  galleon  which  was  sent  annually 
to  Spain.  Three  cannon  shot  brought  down  her  mast,  and 


KNIGHTING  DRAKE. 

her  cargo  was  taken  aboard  the  "  Golden  Hind."  Thirteen 
chests  of  plate,  eighty  pounds  of  gold,  and  twenty-six  tons  of 
silver  were  the  booty  of  the  victor. 

Sailing  northward,  he  landed  on  the  California  coast,  nam- 
ing it  "  New  Albion."  To  avoid  the  Spanish  fleet  waiting  for 
him  at  the  strait,  he  struck  westward  across  the  Pacific,  re- 
turning to  England  in  1580  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  He  was  thus  the  first  Englishman  to  make  the  cir- 


1587] 


ELIZABETH 


191 


CHAIR  MADE  FKOM  DBAKE'S 
SHIP. 


cuit  of  the  globe.  England  went  wild  with  delight.  Drake 
was  knighted.  A  banquet  was  served  to  the  queen  on  board 
his  ship,  and  it  became  a  sort  of 
club-home  for  naval  men.  Years 
afterwards,  when  it  was  broken  up, 
a  chair  was  made  from  some  of  the 
timber  and  given  to  Oxford  Uni- 
versity. 

During  the  next  few  years  Drake 
was   busy   plundering  the   Spanish 
colonies.     In  1587  he  entered  the 
harbor  of  Cadiz  and  scuttled  fifty 
of  Philip's  ships  which  were  being 
fitted  out  to  attack  England.     The 
town   was    plundered    and    burned. 
He  hurried  back  to  England,  saying  • 
he  had  "  singed  Philip's  beard/'  as  he  had  vowed  to  do  when 
he  set  out. 

Execution  of  Mary.  Philip  had  been  preparing  to  invade 
England,  at  first  in  behalf  of  Mary,  but  now  in  his  own  behalf. 
Mary  had  been  a  continual  source  of  trouble.  The  Duke  of 
Norfolk  and  other  nobles  had  attempted  to  release  her  and 
put  her  on  the  English  throne.  The  rising  had  been  put  down 
with  great  severity ;  Norfolk  was  put  in  the  Tower,  and  later 
was  sent  to  the  block. 

The  Society  of  Jesus,  founded  in  1534  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Catholic  faith,  now  began  to  send  its  priests  into 
England.  But  severe  laws  were  made  against  the  Jesuits.  It 
was  made  high  treason  to  receive  any  one  into  the  Catholic 
Church  or  to  absolve  the  queen's  subjects  from  their  oath  of 
allegiance.  A  fine  of  twenty  pounds  a  month  was  laid  on  any 
one  who  would  not  attend  the  established  church.  As  many 
as  two  hundred  of  the  Jesuits  were  imprisoned  or  put  to 
death. 


192  THE    HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1586 

The  severe  laws  against  the  Catholics  had  driven  them  to 
desperation.  Anthony  Babington  and  several  young  men  of 
Elizabeth's  own  court  were  supposed  to  be  in  a  plot  to 
assassinate  her.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  Philip's  chief  general, 
was  to  invade  England,  marry  the  Queen  of  Scots,  and  rule 
the  country  as  the  vassal  of  Spain.  Walsingham's  spies  man- 
aged to  get  the  confidence  of  the  conspirators  and  made  copies 
of  the  letters  passing  between  Mary  and  them.  When  Wal- 
singham  had  obtained  evidence  that  she  was  aware  of  the  plot, 
the  conspirators  were  all  seized  and  put  to  death.  Mary  was 
saved  for  a  time,  but  it  was  believed  that  Elizabeth's  life 
would  never  be  safe  while  Mary  was  alive.  She  was  therefore 
tried  and  beheaded  in  Fotheringay  Castle,  February  8,  1587.  ' 

The  Great  Armada.  Drake's  attack  on  the  Spanish  at 
Cadiz  delaj'ed  Philip's  preparation  for  a  year;  but  in  May, 
1588,  he  was  ready  to.  put  to  sea.  His  fleet,  "the  most 
fortunate  and  invincible  Armada,"  as  he  called  it,  consisted  of 
132  ships,  manned  by  10,000  sailors  and  slaves,  and  carrying 
22,000  soldiers.  The  Duke  of  Parma  was  to  join  him  with 
17,000  soldiers  from  the  Netherlands.  Elizabeth  could  not 
believe  that  England  was  seriously  threatened,  and  delayed 
preparations  till  the  last  moment,  hoping  yet  to  make  peace. 
But  the  English  people  of  both  creeds  united  heartily  in  the 
defense  of  the  country,  for  they  disliked  Philip,  who  now 
claimed  to  be  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  of  England,  since 
he  was  descended  from  John  of  Gaunt. 

The  English  navy  contained  only  thirty-four  ships  and  six 
thousand  men',  but  by  the  efforts  of  the  merchants  and  the 
seaport  towns,  it  was  immensely  increased.  London  was 
asked  to  furnish  fifteen  ships,  but  sent  word  to  the  queen  to 
please  "  accept  thirty."  The  whole  land  responded  with  equal 
generosity,  and  a  formidable  fleet,  under  Admiral  Lord  How- 
ard, was  ready  to  attack  the  Armada  when  it  came  up  the 
Channel  in  July,  1588.  The  Spanish  vessels  were  larger 


1588] 


ELIZABETH 


193 


than  the  English,  but  the  English  had  more  cannon.  The 
English  could  therefore  inflict  much  damage  while  themselves 
keeping  out  of  range  of  the  Spanish  musketry.  When  one 
of  the  galleons  was  crippled  and  left  behind  the  fleet,  the  Eng- 
lish ships  would  surround  and  capture  it  —  "  plucking  off  the 
feathers,"  they  called  it.  The  Spanish  vessels,  on  account 
of  their  clumsy  build,  could  not  readily  assist  one  another, 
while  the  light  and  swift  English  ships  could  destroy  an 
enemy  and  escape  without  damage. 


DRAKE  RECEIVING  THE   SURRENDER  OF  A  SPANISH   SHIP. 

The  Armada  came  to  anchor  off  Calais  to  await  the  Duke  of 
Parma  and  his  veterans.  Elizabeth  had  assembled  her  troops 
at  Tilbury.  Clad  in  armor  and  mounted  on  a  white  horse, 
she  rode  among  them  and  made  a  speech  which  stirred  their 
loyalty.  "  Let  tyrants  fear ; "  she  said,  "  my  strength  and 
safety  are  in  the  loyal  hearts  of  my  people.  I  know  I  am 
a  weak  and  feeble  woman,  but  I  have  the  heart  of  a  King  of 
England." 


194  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1588 

But  the  soldiers  were  not  needed.  Parma  was  blockaded  by 
a  Dutch  fleet  and  could  not  embark.  The  English  sent  fire 
ships  among  the  Spanish  vessels  which  lay  at  anchor  off  Calais. 
In  an  effort  to  escape,  they  cut  their  cables  and  put  to  sea  in 
confusion.  The  English  fleet  then  attacked,  and  sank  or  cap- 
tured sixteen  ships.  A  tempest  began  to  blow  from  the  south- 
east. The  Spanish  ships  were  driven  away  from  the  Nether- 
lands and  hopelessly  scattered,  while  the  English  rode  out  the 
storm  without  the  loss  of  a  ship.  Some  of  the  Spanish  vessels 
were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  others  on  the  islands 
around  Scotland,  till  finally  out  of  the  "  Invincible  Armada  " 
only  fifty-three  ships  and  10,000  men  returned  to  Spain. 
The  Spanish  king  had  done  his  worst  and  had  failed.  The  sea 
power  of  Spain  steadily  declined,  and  she  sank  from  the  first 
rank  of  nations,  while  England  rose  to  the  first  place  as  a 
naval,  commercial,  and  colonizing  nation. 

Church  Troubles.  During  the  rest  of  the  reign  the 
Catholic  dissenters  were  treated  with  the  greatest  severity. 
Priests  and  laymen  who  would  not  recant  were  banished,  and 
about  fifty,  including  two  women,  suffered  death.  The  Court 
of  High  Commission  was  established  to  settle  questions  re- 
lating to  the  church.  It  tried  and  punished  the  Puritans 
harshly.  By  this  time  the  most  of  the  Catholics  had  been 
driven  into  the  established  church;  and,  to  make  it  conform 
somewhat  to  the  old  form  of  Catholic  worship,  the  High 
Church  party  grew  up,  which  Elizabeth  herself  favored,  and 
which  afterwards,  by  its  severity,  drove  the  Puritans  into 
rebellion.  The  severe  measures  of  the  High  Commission  court 
were  caused  by  the  rise  of  new  sects.  Besides  the  Puritans, 
who  wished,  as  they  said,  to  "  purify  "  the  church  of  Catholic 
ceremonies,  another  sect  arose,  called  Brownists,  from  the 
name  of  their  leader,  and  afterwards  known  as  Separatists. 
This  denomination  held  that  each  church  congregation  ought 
to  have  the  right  to  govern  itself  without  interference  of  any 


1596]  ELIZABETH  195 

kind.  They  were  especially  hateful  to  Elizabeth,  and  six  were 
put  to  death. 

The  sect  of  Presbyterians,  or  Calvinists,  established  by 
John  Knox  in  Scotland,  soon  spread  to  England.  They 
wished  to  govern  the  church  by  sending  representatives 
from  each  congregation  to  an  assembly  which  should  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  political  government.  These  ideas  of 
church  government  were  too  new  and  strange  to  receive  much 
favor  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

War  against  Spain  Continued.  England  now  turned 
invader.,  and  for  the  rest  of  Elizabeth's  reign  Spain  was 
mercilessly  plundered.  Her  colonies  were  raided,  towns 
sacked,  and  countless  wealth  carried  away  to  England.  Drake 
died  in  1596  while  on  one  of  his  cruises  against  the  Span- 
iards, and  Hawkins,  who  was  over  sixty,  died  about  the  same 
time. 

Sir  Richard  Grenville.  In  these  wars  many  a  valiant 
deed  was  done.  One  of  the  most  noted  is  that  of  Richard 
Grenville.  He  and  Lord  Howard  were  with  a  fleet  looking 
for  Spanish  treasure  ships  near  the  Azores,  when  they  were 
surprised  by  a  fleet  of  fifty-three  Spanish  ships  of  war.  All 
escaped  but  Grenville,  who  refused  to  fly,  but  with  one  ship 
proceeded  to  fight  his  way  through  the  enemy's  fleet.  For 
fifteen  hours  he  held  out,  until  his  ship  was  barely  afloat,  his 
powder  gone,  forty  men  killed,  and  himself  desperately 
wounded.  He  then  ordered  his  men  to  sink  the  ship  so  that 
it  should  not  fall  into  the  enemy's  hands.  Tennyson  tells 
the  story  in  his  ballad  "  The  Eevenge  " : 

"  And  the  sun  went  down,  and  the  stars  came  out  far  over  the  sum- 
mer sea, 

But  never  for  a  moment  ceased  the  fight  of  the  one  and  the  fifty- 
three. 

Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  their  high-built  galleons  came, 
Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  with  her  battle-thunder  and 
flame ; 


196  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1591 

Ship  after  ship,  the  whole  night  long,  drew  back  with  her  dead  and 

her  shame. 
For  some  were  sunk,  and  many  were  shattered,  and  so  could  fight 

us  no  more ; 
God  of  battles!  was  ever  a  battle  like  this  in  the  world  before?" 

Grenville  was  carried  on  board  one  of  the  enemy's  ships 
to  die,  and  the  Spaniards  did  honor  to  his  valor.  His  last 
words  were  fitting  to  the  manner  of  his  death :  "  Here  die 
I,  Richard  Grenville,  with  a  joyful  and  quiet  mind;  for  I 
have  ended  my  life  as  a  good  soldier  ought,  who  has  fought 
for  his  country  and  his  queen,  for  his  honor  and  his  re- 
ligion." 

These  wars  were  brought  to  a  close  in  1596  by  an  attack 
on  Cadiz.  Lord  Howard  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  ships 
and  Essex  with  a  land  force  joined  in  an  assault  on  the 
town.  The  shipping  in  the  harbor  was  completely  destroyed 
and  the  city  plundered,  but  no  one  was  needlessly  slaugh- 
tered. The  dread  of  Spain  was  over.  ^ 

Conquest  of  Ireland.  The  English  had  never  been  able 
to  control  permanently  more  than  a  small  strip  of  the  Irish 
coast  around  Dublin.  In  the  latter  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign, 
the  young  Earl  of  Essex,  a  favorite  of  the  queen,  was  sent  to 
Ireland  to  put  down  a  rising  in  Ulster  begun  by  the  Irish 
Earl  of  Tyrone,  who  had  invited  in  the  Spanish  to  aid  him. 
Essex  wasted  his  time,  his  army  melted  away,  and  nothing 
was  done  against  Tyrone.  He  behaved  as  though  he  intended 
to  join  the  rebels  against  England.  On  his  return,  being 
coldly  received,  he  attempted  to  stir  up  a  rebellion  and  get 
control  of  the  queen's  council.  For  this  he  was  tried  and  be- 
headed. Elizabeth,  who  loved  him  as  though  he  were  a  son, 
never  recovered  from  the  sorrow  she  felt  at  his  fall.  Lord 
Mountjoy  succeeded  him  in  the  Irish  command  and  compelled 
the  Earl  of  Tyrone  to  submit.  Mountjoy's  methods  were  so 
severe  that  the  queen  said  they  "left  nothing  but  ashes  and 
corpses  to  rule  over." 


1601]  ELIZABETH  197 

The  Repeal  of  Monopolies.  Elizabeth,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, avoided  taxing  the  people.  One  way  she  had  of  raising 
money  was  by  the  sale  of  monopolies.  For  example,  the 
Earl  of  Essex  was  the  only  man  in  England  allowed  to  sell 
sweet  wines.  For  this  privilege  he  paid  a  certain  sum  to 
the  queen.  But  people  who  wanted  to  buy  sweet  wine,  or 
any  other  article  protected  by  a  monopoly,  had  to  pay  more 
for  it.  So  many  monopolies  were  granted  that  they  became 
a  great  burden,  and  in  1601  the  last  parliament  called  by 
Elizabeth  petitioned  her  to  make  an  end  of  them.  She 
abolished  the  worst  ones  at  once,  when  she  saw  the  people  de- 
sired it.  In  doing  so  she  made  her  last  speech  to  the  English 
people,  closing  with  these  words :  "  Though  you  have  had, 
and  may  have,  many  princes  more  mighty  and  wise  sitting  in 
this  seat,  yet  you  never  had  nor  will  have  any  that  will  be 
more  careful  and  loving." 

Manufactures.  We  have  seen  how  cloth  manufacturing 
was  begun  in  the  time  of  Edward  III.,  by  inviting  Flemish 
spinners  and  weavers  to  come  to  England  to  teach  their 
trades  to  English  apprentices.  During  the  bloody  wars  of 
Philip  II.  in  the  Netherlands  many  more  came.  In  one 
year  alone  the  number  was  30,000.  Elizabeth  welcomed  them, 
because  skillful  workmen  make  a  country  rich.  She  gave 
them  lands  in  Sandwich  and  Norwich  (p.  7),  on  the  con- 
dition that  every  one  of  them  should  employ  at  least  one 
English  apprentice.  It  soon  came  about  that  instead  of 
England  sending  wool  to  Flanders  and  buying  it  back  in 
the  form  of  cloth,  the  cloth  was  made  in  England  and 
sold  to  the  merchants  in  Flanders,  who  again  sold  it  to 
merchants  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  Twice  a  year  the  English 
merchants  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  fifty  or  sixty  ships,  and  as 
much  as  100,000  pieces  of  woolen  and  silk  were  sold  every 
year. 

The  Coinage.     In  order  to  carry  on  trade  it  is  necessary 


198  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1562 

to  have  good  money,  that  is,  coin  that  is  worth  the  amount 
stamped  upon  it,  so  that  people  will  take  it  freely  in  exchange 
for  goods.  Much  of  the  coin  had  been  debased  by  melting 
cheaper  metals  with  the  gold  and  silver,  so  that  a  coin  that  said 
one  shilling  on  its  face  was  worth  only  one  third  of  a  shilling. 
Elizabeth  caused  all  this  poor  money  to  be  recoined  to  make 
it  worth  its  face  value,  j^ 

The  Royal  Exchange.  At  first  the  merchants  of  Lon- 
don were  obliged  to  do  their  buying  and  selling  on  the  side- 
walks, where  they  were  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  weather.  The 
Hansa  merchants  had  long  before  built  a  special  place,  the 
Steelyard,  where  they  conducted  their  business.  In  1560 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  a' wealthy  English  merchant,  who  had 
lived  in  Flanders  and  had  seen  the  fine  stores  of  the  traders 
there,  built  on  Lombard  Street,  the  main  business  thorough- 
fare, a  fine  brick  structure  surrounding  a  square.  Around 
this  square  shops  were  arranged  with  vaults  for  safely  storing 
merchandise.  Elizabeth  was  so  pleased  with  Gresham's  build- 
ing that  she  named  it  "  The  Eoyal  Exchange." 

Trade  with  Russia.  In  1553  Richard  Chancellor  had 
tried  to  find  a  passage  to  India  by  sailing  eastward  through 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  He  went  as  far  as  Archangel,  and  from 
there  journeyed  overland  in  a  sledge,  1,500  miles,  to  Moscow, 
the  capital  of  Russia,  or  Muscovy,  as  that  country  was 
then  called.  Here  he  was  gladly  received  by  the  emperor, 
who  gave  him  letters  to  Queen  Mary.  These  Chancellor  de- 
livered to  her,  along  with  an  account  of  the  country,  which 
was  very  productive  of  grain,  hemp,  furs,  and  ivory.  Four 
years  later  the  emperor  sent  an  ambassador  to  England  to 
see  about  opening  trade.  The  merchants  dressed  themselves 
in  their  finest  silks  and  velvets,  and  hung  chains  of  gold  about 
their  necks,  when  they  went  in  procession  to  receive  him. 
This  they  did  to  show  their  elegance  and  wealth  and  so  make 
the  Russians  eager  to  trade  with  them.  They  also  gave  the 


1600]  TRADE  AND  TRAVEL  199 

ambassador  a  fine  horse  richly  caparisoned,  with  a  splendid 
saddle,  and  cloths  of  velvet,  trimmed  with  gold  lace,  and 
took  him  fox  hunting  with  three  hundred  knights  and  gen- 
tlemen. When  he  returned  the  merchants  sent  with  him 
four  "good  and  well-trimmed  ships."  And  thus  trade  with 
Russia  began. 

Other  Voyages  were  made  in  the  reigns  of  Mary  and 
Elizabeth  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  trade  was  begun 
with  the  Portuguese  settlements  there.  India  was  first  seen 
by  Englishmen  when  Drake  made  his  famous  voyage  around 
the  world.  Thomas  Cavendish  followed  him  in  1586,  in  the 
second  English  ship  to  sail  around  the  globe.  As  early  as 
1576  Martin  Frobisher  had  tried  to  reach  India  by  "the 
northwest  passage,"  north  of  North  America.  In  two  later 
voyages  he  repeated  the  attempt,  but  could  make  his  way 
only  little  further  than  Hudson  Strait  (map,  p.  400). 

The  first  English  colony  planted  in  America  was  founded 
on  Eoanoke  Island  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  one  of  the  courtiers 
of  Elizabeth;  though  it  failed,  the  interest  it  aroused  led  to 
later  successes,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  reign. 

English  Travelers  had  found  the  way  eastward  to  India 
as  well  as  westward  to  America.  Ralph  Fitch  traveled  over- 
land as  far  as  Bengal,  and  returning  in  1591,  after  an  absence 
of  eight  years,  wrote  a  full  account  of  his  experiences. 

Raymond  and  Lancaster  in  1591  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  visited  Ceylon,  Malacca,  China,  and  Japan,  and  re- 
turning by  a  southwestern  course  saw  many  of  the  East 
Indies.  In  1600,  the  East  India  Company  was  chartered  for 
trade  with  that  part  of  the  world. 

Anthony  Jenkinson  was  a  London  trader  who  journeyed 
through  Russia,  visited  the  regions  about  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian seas,  and  traveled  into  parts  of  Siberia,  Persia,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

In  1580  the  English  obtained  from  the  Turks  a  "charter 


200 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR 


[1580 


of  liberties/'  granting  them  the  privilege  to  trade  in  the  east- 
ern. Mediterranean,  or  the  "  Levant/'  as  it  is  called. 

Thus  we  see  English  commerce  and  exploration  branching 
out  in  every  direction:  northeast  to  Russia;  westward  to 
America;  southeast  to  the  continent  of  Europe  and  the 
Levant ;  eastward  to  India,  China,  and  Japan ;  and  south  along 
the  coast  of  Africa.  In  the  next  century,  the  seventeenth, 
colonies  are  planted  and  the  foundation  of  the  British  Empire 
begun. 

English  Literature  of  the  Time  of  Elizabeth.  The 
greatest  name  among  the  many  authors  of  Elizabeth's  time 

is  William  Shakespeare.  He 
wrote  dramas  which  have 
never  been  equaled,  and  are 
still  played  in  our  theaters. 
He  was  himself  an  actor  and 
wrote  his  plays  for  his  own 
theater  in  London,  the 
"  Globe." 

The  greatest  poet  after 
Shakespeare  was  Edmund 
Spenser.  His  great  poem, 
the  "  Faery  Queen,"  is  com- 
posed of  twelve  tales  of 
knightly  adventure.  The  hero  is  Prince  Arthur,  and  in 
the  beautiful  lady  for  whose  hand  the  knights  are  striving 
we  may  see  the  poet's  flattery  of  Elizabeth.  Sir  Philip 
Sidney,  the  "warbler  of  poetic  prose,"  as  Cowper  calls  him, 
wrote  a  romance  called  "Arcadia."  Ealeigh,  in  the  next 
reign,  wrote  a  history  of  the  world.  More  than  a  hundred 
good  writers  who  lived  in  Elizabeth's  time  might  be  men- 
tioned. In  no  other  period  shall  we  find  such  a  brilliant  com- 
pany of  dramatists  and  poets. 

Francis  Bacon  was  the  most  distinguished  prose  writer. 


SHAKESPEABE. 


LITERATURE  201 

He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  one  of  the  queen's 
officers.  Once  the  queen  asked  him  his  age.  "  I  am  two  years 
younger  than  your  Majesty's  happy  reign,"  he  replied.  His 
"  Essays  "  are  famous.  He  wrote  a  book  describing  the  method 
of  learning  about  things  by  observation  and  experiment,  and 
in  consequence  has  been  called  the  founder  of  "experimental 
science."  He  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  important  books, 
to  which  he  gave  the  long  name,  "The  Great  Institution  of 
True  Philosophy."  These  writings  were  in  Latin,  which  was 
still  the  language  of  learned  men.  The  queen  herself  was  a 
famous  scholar  and  could  make  speeches  in  both  Latin  and 
Greek.  Bacon  died  (1626)  as  the  result  of  one  of  his  experi- 
ments. Once  when  he  was  riding  in  his  carriage  during  a 
snowstorm,  it  occurred  to  him  that  snow  might  be  used  instead 
of  salt  in  preserving  flesh.  He  stopped  at  a  farmhouse  and 
bought  a  fowl  to  try  an  experiment.  He  caught  cold  from  the 
exposure  and  died  from  the  fever  which  followed  it. 

Life  of  the  People.  The  people  of  England  lived  in 
better  houses,  wore  better  clothing,  and  ate  better  food  in  Eliz- 
abeth's reign  than  at  any  previous  time  in  English  history. 
The  houses  were  floored  and  wainscoted.  Glass  windows  took 
the  place  of  open  latticework.  Spoons  and  knives  were  used, 
and,  finally,  forks,  as  one  writer  says,  "  to  the  great  saving  of 
napkins/' 

The  small  farmer,  or  yeoman,  was  protected  by  law,  and 
thus  the  evil  of  "  inclosing "  land  was  diminished.  Books 
on  farming  and  gardening  were  written,  and  the  people 
learned  how  to  raise  vegetables  and  fruits. 

Hunting,  hawking,  and  bull  and  bear  baiting  were  favorite 
amusements.  There  were  many  holidays,  when  the  country 
people  gathered  in  the  nearest  village  for  shooting,  wrestling, 
football,  and  quoits.  Then  there  was  dancing,  masquerading, 
pantomimes,  games,  cockfights,  and  feasts.  On  May  Day, 
a  pole  was  "  set  up  and  dancing  followed."  Whitsunday  wag 


202  THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR  [1603 

celebrated  with  much  merriment  and  games.  Christenings, 
betrothals,,  weddings,  and  even  funerals  were  made  the  occa- 
sion of  much  feasting.  It  was  certainly  a  "  merrie  England  " 
in  the  times  of  Queen  "  Bess." 

In  1603,  in  the  seventieth  year  of  her  age,  and  the  forty-fifth 
of  her  reign,  the  good  queen  passed  away.  On  her  deathbed 
she  expressed  her  wish  that  her  "  cousin  of  Scotland/'  James 
VIV  should  be  her  successor. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  was  Elizabeth's  policy  in  religious  matters  ?    Describe  her 

foreign  policy. 

2.  What  led  to  the  voyages  and  commercial  enterprise  of  Elizabeth's 

reign?     What  important  results  followed? 

3.  How  did  Mary  Stuart  hope  to  obtain  the  English  crown?     What 

was  her  claim  to  it? 

4.  Why   did   the   great   empire   of   Spain   yield   before   the   power   of 

England?     Compare   the  navies   of   the   two  countries  at  the 
time  of  the  Armada. 

5.  Why  did   the  English  people  consider  the   reign  of  Elizabeth  the 

most  glorious  in  their  history?     Is  it  still  so  considered? 
G.  Compare  Elizabeth  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain  as  a  ruler. 

7.  To  what  important  results  has  Bacon's  philosophy  led? 

8.  What  can  you  say  of  the  literature  of  Elizabeth's  time? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

L  THE  GREAT  ARMADA.  Gomme,  Kings'  Story  Book,  Ch.  IV.; 
Creighton,  Age  of  Elizabeth,  Ch.  II. ;  Macaulay's  poem,  The 
Armada. 

2.  DRAKE'S  GREAT  VOYAGE.     Henty,  Under  Drake's  Flag;  Frothing- 

ham,   Sea  Fighters. 

3.  ELIZABETH  AT  KENILWORTH.     Scott,  Kenilworth,  pp.  339-346. 

4.  CAPTIVITY  AND  DEATH  OF  MARY  STUART.     Kendall,  Source  Book, 

pp.   164-178;   Rolfe,   Tales  from  Scottish  History,  pp.   92-120. 

5.  THE   REVENGE.      Tennyson's   poem,    The   Revenge;   Colby,   Souret 

Book,  pp.  174-177. 


VIII.      THE    STUART    KINGS1    AND    CROMWELL, 

A.     THE  FIBST  KING  BY  "DIVINE  RIGHT/' 
James  I.,  1603-1625. 

The  First  Stuart  King  of  England  was  summoned  by  a 
swift  messenger,  who  took  the  news  of  Elizabeth's  death  to 
Edinburgh.  A  few  days  later,  James  VI.  of  Scotland  re- 
ceived a  formal  letter  from  the  council  announcing  that  he  had 
been  proclaimed  King  James  I.  of  England.  There  was  no 
one  who  could  safely  dispute  his  claim.  The  people  wished 
to  end  the  wars  between  the  two  countries,  and  as  James  was 
a  Presbyterian,  he  was  welcome  to  the  growing  number  of 
Puritans. 

The  king  consumed  thirty-two  days  in  traveling  to  Lon- 
don. He  stopped  frequently  to  hunt  and  feast  with  his 
new  subjects,  and  to  make  their  acquaintance.  His  majesty 
was  very  awkward  on  his  feet,  and  still  more  so  in  the 
saddle.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  his  attendants,  he  once 
rolled  off  his  horse,  but  Robert  Cecil,  his  chancellor,  courteous- 

*THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART. 
JAMES  I.   (1603-1625)    (p.  156) 


CHARLES   I.     (1625-1649)  Elizabeth,    m.    Frederick 

Elector   of    the   Palatinate 


CHARLES  II.         Mary,  m.                JAMES  II.  Sophia,  m.  the  Elector 

(1660-1685)        William    II.                     I   (1685-1688)  1     of    Hanover 

of  Orange  I George  I.  (p.  284) 

William  III.  of  Orange,  m.  MARY  ANNE  Tames   Edward, 

afterward  (1689-1694)  (1702-1714)     the  Old  Pretender 

WILLIAM  III.  of  England 

(1689-1702)  Charles,  the  Young  Pretender 

203 


204  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1603 

ly  remarked  that  "  any  great  and  extreme  rider "  like  his 
Majesty  was  liable  to  such  an  accident.  To  accustom  the 
kingly  arm  to  the  use  of  his  new  power,  he  knighted  some- 
thing over  two  hundred  gentlemen  during  his  "progress," 
and  condemned  a  pickpocket  to  death.  "  I  hear  our  new 
king/'  a  famous  Englishman  wrote  to  a  friend,  "  hath  hanged 
one  man  without  a  trial.  If  the  wind  bloweth  thus,  why  may 
not  a  man  be  tried  before  he  hath  offended  ?  " 

The  Stuart  Notion  of  the  Rights  of  Kings.  James  I. 
brought  into  England  a  new  idea  as  to  the  power  of  a  king. 
The  English  people  held  that  a  king  could  not  act  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  the  country;  but  James  believed  that  he  was 
above  the  law  and  could  do  anything  he  pleased.  "  Do  I 
not  make  the  judges  and  the  bishops  ?  "  he  said.  "  Then  I 
may  make  what  I  like  law  and  gospel/'  His  favorite  expres- 
sion was,  "  God  makes  the  king,  the  king  makes  the  law." 
This  theory  that  a  king  derives  his  power  directly  from  God  is 
sometimes  called  "  the  divine  right  of  kings."  It  was  a  new 
idea  in  England,  where  the  Parliament  was  thought  to  "  make 
the  king,"  and,  with  the  king,  to  make  the  law ;  and  it  was  an 
unfortunate  idea  for  the  Stuart  house,  for  in  the  end  it 
cost  one  of  them  his  head,  and  another  one  his  throne. 

In  Scotland  the  Presbyterians  and  the  powerful  nobles  had 
given  James  little  power  and  little  money.  Indeed,  Cecil 
had  to  send  him  enough  to  pay  his  expenses  to  London.  In 
England,  however,  he  expected  to  have  the  same  nearly  abso- 
lute power  that  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth  had  had.  During 
the  reign  of  these  two  able  sovereigns,  the  power  of  the  people 
had  slumbered.  They  had  their  way,  but  with  the  approval 
of  the  people.  When  James  attempted  to  have  his  way 
without  the  approval  of  the  people,  trouble  began. 

The  Appearance  and  Character  of  James  were  in  pitiful 
contrast  with  the  stern  command  of  Henry,  or  the  stately 
dignity  of  Elizabeth.  The  people  were  disgusted  with  his 


1604]  JAMES  L  205 

undignified  appearance  and  behavior.  He  rolled  and  strad- 
dled in  his  gait,  as  though  his  legs  were  too  weak  to  carry  his 
body;  and  his  expressionless  eyes  rolled  about  and  stared  va- 
cantly at  nothing.  He  was  untidy  in  person,  his  clothing 
was  neglected  and  dirty,  and  his  whole  appearance  ungainly 
and  slovenly.  He  was  in  constant  fear  of  assassination,  and 
wore  a  thickly  wadded,  dagger-proof  coat.  He  lurked  cau- 
tiously behind  his  courtiers  when  any  strange  visitors  were 
about. 

The  king  had  been  carefully  educated  and  was  fond  of 
displaying  his  learning.  In  his  councils,  he  loved  to  do  the 
talking,  especially  concerning  church  matters,  when  he 
would  speak  in  Latin  or  Greek  to  show  off  his  learning.  But 
though  he  knew  many  things,  he  was  lacking  in  good  sense. 
The  French  ambassador  at  the  English  court  called  him  the 
"  wisest  fool  in  Europe/' 

James  and  the  English  Church.  While  James  was  on 
his  way  to  London,  a  petition  signed  by  a  thousand  Puritan 
clergymen  was  given  to  him,  begging  that  the  laws  against 
dissenters  might  be  repealed.  They  did  not  want  to  wear 
a  robe  when  they  conducted  the  church  service,  and  they 
wished  to  be  allowed  to  preach  sermons  of  their  own.  They 
did  not  like  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  when  children 
were  baptized,  or  to  use  a  ring  in  the  marriage  ceremony. 

So  James  called  a  great  conference  of  Puritans  and  bishops 
at  Hampton  Court,  to  consider  what  should  be  done.  He 
may  have  had  an  honest  desire  to  hear  their  complaints ;  but 
he  became  impatient  and  angry  when  the  Puritans  differed 
with  him  on  any  point.  He  made  a  long  speech  telling  them 
his  views  in  regard  to  the  church.  He  used  big  words  and 
talked  Latin.  The  English  bishops  fell  on  their  knees  and 
thanked  God  for  giving  them  such  a  wise  king,  and  declared 
that  he  was  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  James  was  delighted 
with  their  praise,  and  did  not  see  that  they  were  flattering 


206  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1604 

him  for  their  own  purposes.  Their  conduct  was  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  followers  of  Knox  in  Scotland,  one 
of  whom  had  called  him  a  "  witless  fool "  to  his  face. 

Deserting  the  Presbyterians,  he  gave  his  support  to  the 
bishops,  and  he  announced  afterward  that  if  the  dissenters 
did  not  conform  to  the  established  church  he  would  "  harry 
them  out  of  the  kingdom."  He  broke  up  the  conference  and 
imprisoned  ten  of  those  who  had  signed  the  petition. 

He  first  suspended  and  then  revived  a  law  of  Elizabeth  fin- 
ing Catholics  20  pounds  a  month  if  they  did  not  attend  the 
English  Church.  The  fine  was  so  heavy  that  many  were 
ruined. 

The  Gunpowder  Plot.  Eobert  Catesby,  a  Catholic, 
formed  a  plan  to  blow  up  the  house  of  Parliament  and  get  rid 
of  King,  Lords,  and  Commons  at  one  blow.  With  Guy 
Fawkes  and  others  he  hired  a  coal  cellar  under  the  Parliament 
house  and  placed  in  it  thirty-four  barrels  of  gunpowder,  which 
were  covered  with  fuel  to  conceal  them.  Horses  were  ready, 
and  a  ship  to  take  the  conspirators  out  of  the  country  in  case 
of  need.  But  just  before  Parliament  was  to  meet,  one  of  the 
conspirators  wrote  to  warn  his  brother-in-law  to  stay  away 

from  the  meeting,  for,  he 
said,  "  this  Parliament 
shall  receive  a  terrible 
blow,  and  shall  not  see 
who  hurt  them."  The  let- 
ter was  put  into  the  hands 
of  Cecil  and  the  king,  and 
its  meaning  was  unraveled. 
Soldiers  searched  the 
GUY  FAWKES'S  LANTERN.  cellar  and  seized  Fawkes. 

Other  plotters  took  arms,  but  were  pursued  and  killed  or 
captured.  The  prisoners  were  executed.  Fawkes  was  first 
examined  by  the  king,  who  asked  how  he  could  have  the  heart 


JAMES  I.  207 

to  kill  the  king  and  other  innocent  people.  "  Desperate  dis- 
eases require  desperate  remedies,"  was  the  reply.  To  a  little 
Scotch  favorite  who  asked  why  he  had  got  so  much  powder 
together,  Fawkes  answered  that  he  wanted  to  blow  all  Scotch- 
men as  far  as  Scotland.  Though  racked  and  tortured,  he  re- 
fused to  tell  the  names  of  his  fellow-plotters. 

Trouble  with  Parliament.  When  the  King  of  England 
wishes  to  consult  the  people,  he  orders  an  election.  The 
people  of  each  city  and  county  then  elect  representatives.  If 
there  is  a  disputed  election,  the  House  of  Commons  has  the 
right  to  decide  which  man  is  legally  chosen.  King  James 
tried  to  take  away  this  privilege  and  decide  the  election  him- 
self, but  the  House  insisted  on  its  rights.  He  also  quarreled 
with  Parliament  about  other  things,  and  Parliament  did  not 
grant  him  the  new  taxes  he  asked  for. 

In  a  later  Parliament  (1621),  when  he  asked  for  a  grant  of 
money,  the  Commons  refused  until  the  king  should  remove 
certain  grievances.  He  had  been  collecting  a  large  amount  of 
duties  on  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  country  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament.  He  had  been  trying  law  cases  in  his 
Court  of  High  Commission,  which  ought  to  have  been  tried 
in  the  ordinary  courts.  His  judges,  too,  were  receiving 
bribes  for  deciding  cases.  The  Commons,  however,  com- 
plained especially  that  the  king  had  granted  many  monop- 
olies (p.  197).  The  king  abolished  the  monopolies,  and 
Parliament  impeached  Lord  Francis  Bacon,  the  chancellor, 
for  bribery,  fined  him,  and  put  him  out  of  office. 

James  wanted  Parliament  to  think  that  the  power  they 
had  was  a  gift  from  the  crown;  but  they  informed  him 
that  "  their  privileges  were  theirs  by  right  of  birth  as  English- 
men, and  that  all  matters  of  public  interest  were  their  busi- 
ness/' He  was  so  angry  at  their  boldness  that  he  dissolved 
Parliament  at  once,  and  had  six  of  them  put  into  prison. 
Since  ha  could  not  get  them  to  grant  money  without  giving 


208  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1612 

up  his  "  divine  right/'  he  continued  to  get  it  by  unlawful 
means. 

The  King's  Favorites.  Kobert  Cecil,  the  chief  adviser  of 
the  king,  died  in  1612.  The  king  then  chose  for  his  ad- 
viser a  handsome  young  man  named  Robert  Carr.  He 
made  him  an  earl,  and  a  Knight  of  the  Garter.  But  Carr 
was  soon  accused  of  a  murder  and  condemned  to  death; 
though  James  pardoned  him,  he  was  banished  from  court. 
George  Villiers,  another  adventurer,  who  had  begun  as  the 
king's  cupbearer,  now  took  Carr's  place.  James  heaped 
wealth  and  honors  upon  him,  and  made  him  the  chief  man 
in  the  kingdom.  If  these  favorites  had  been  worthy  and 
able  men,  no  one  would  have  complained,  but  the  only  claim 
they  had  to  consideration  was  their  good  looks.  Elizabeth 
had  chosen  the  wisest  in  England  for  her  council,  but  James 
chose  worthless  men. 

Relations  with  Spain.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
James  made  peace  with  Spain.  He  thought  that  by  keeping 
on  good  ternrs  with  both  Catholic  and  Protestant  countries 
he  could  prevent  the  religious  wars  that  were  threatening 
to  break  out.  But  in  spite  of  his  notion  of  his  own  impor- 
tance, the  king  really  counted  for  little  in  the  affairs  of 
Europe.  Contrary  to  the  wish  of  his  people,  he  wanted  his 
son  Charles  to  marry  the  Infanta,  or  Spanish  princess,  Maria, 
and  thus  strengthen  his  friendship  with  Spain.  His  daughter 
Elizabeth  had  already  been  married  to  Frederick,  Elector  of 
the  Palatinate,  one  of  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany. 
When  Frederick  became  engaged  in  war,  the  Spanish  ambas- 
sador to  England  encouraged  James  in  the  idea  of  marrying 
Charles  to  the  Infanta  Maria.  James  feared  to  help  his  son- 
in-law  Frederick,  lest  he  should  lose  the  large  dowry  which 
would  come  with  the  Spanish  princess.  But  the  marriage 
did  not  take  place.  The  shrewd  Spanish  minister  was  leading 
James  on  just  to  keep  him  out  of  affairs  in  Germany. 


16231  JAMES  I.  209 

Prince  Charles  and  George  Villiers,  who  was  soon  made 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  disguised  themselves  and  went  to  Spain 
to  hurry  along  the  wooing.  But  the  coarse  familiarity  of 
the  prince  and  his  followers  gave  a  great  shock  to  the  dignified 
Spanish  courtiers.  Buckingham,  especially,  gave  great  of- 
fense by  his  rude  conduct  and  vulgar  language.  Charles  was 
not  allowed  to  see  the  princess  alone,  so  one  day  he  jumped 
over  a  high  wall  into  a  garden  where  she  was.  But  the  lady 
only  screamed  and  ran  away  into  the  house.  An  old  noble 
who  attended  her  fell  on  his  knees  before  Charles,  and  begged 
him  to  leave  the  place  at  once,  as  the  king  would  surely  cut  off 
his  head  if  he  suffered  any  man  to  speak  to  the  princess. 
After  a  long  stay  "Steenie"  and  "Baby  Charles,"  as  James 
called  his  favorite  and  his  son,  returned  home,  and  the 
flurry  over  the  "Spanish  match"  came  to  an  end  (1623). 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  had  been  imprisoned  by  James  on 
the  charge  of  plotting  against  the  king.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
nothing  was  proved  against  Sir  Walter,  and  his  imprisonment 
was  due  to  the  jealously  of  Cecil.  A  very  famous  lawyer,  Sir 
Edward  Coke,  whose  books  are  still  studied,  managed  to  get 
Raleigh  convicted  of  treason. 

James  was  in  great  need  of  money;  and  as  Raleigh  assured 
him  he  could  find  plenty  of  gold  along  the  Orinoco  River,  he 
was  released  and  put  in  command  of  several  ships  to  go  in 
search  of  it.  The  king  gave  strict  orders  not  to  molest  the 
Spaniards  in  any  way.  But  as  they  claimed  all  of  South 
America,  a  conflict  with  them  would  be  unavoidable,  and 
Raleigh  supposed  the  orders  were  not  meant  to  be  obeyed.  A 
company  sent  out  in  search  of  gold  was  attacked  by  Spaniards 
and  in  return  Raleigh  captured  a  Spanish  town.  But  his 
search  for  gold  was  in  vain.  When  he  returned  to  England, 
the  Spanish  ambassador  urged  his  execution,  and  James,  to 
please  him,  put  Raleigh  to  death  on  the  old  charge  of  treason, 
though  Raleigh  had  helped  to  defend  his  country  against  the 


210 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1618 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH  PARTING  WITH  HIS  WIFE. 

Armada,  and  was  loved  by  all  England.     On  the  night  before 
his  execution  (1618),  Ealeigh  wrote  the  following  lines: 

"  Even  such  is  Time,  that  takes  on  trust 
Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have, 
And  pays  us  but  with  age  and  dust ; 
Who,  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave, 
When  we  have  wandered  all  our  ways, 
Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days ; 
But  from  this  earth,  this  grave,  this  dust, 
My  God  shall  raise  me  up,  I  trust." 

The  American  Colonies.     In   Elizabeth's  reign  Ealeigh 
had  spent  a  large  fortune  on  American  colonization  and  had 


1620]  JAMES  I.  211 

failed.  King  James  authorized  the  London  and  Plymouth 
companies  to  open  trade  and  plant  colonies  in  America.  The 
Plymouth  Company  was  unsuccessful ;  but  under  the  London 
Company  the  first  permanent  English  colony  in  America  was 
founded  at  Jamestown  in  Virginia  in  1607. 

The  charter  drawn  up  by  the  king  for  the  government  of 
the  new  colony  gave  the  settlers  no  power  in  the  management 
of  affairs.  It  was  speedily  changed,  and  the  Virginia  colony 
became  flourishing.  Tobacco  culture  became  profitable,  for 
smoking,  which  was  introduced  by  Sir  Walter  Ealeigh,  was 
the  fashion  in  England.  This  habit  was  very  distasteful  to 
James,  who  wrote  a  book  against  it,  called  "  A  Counterblast 
to  Tobacco."  But  the  English  people  went  on  puffing  at  their 
pipes,  thinking,  perhaps,  that  James's  habit  of  making  himself 
tipsy  ever}r  day  was  quite  as  bad  as  smoking. 

The  next  important  colony  was  founded  in  1620,  at  Plym- 
outh in  New  England,  by  the  "Pilgrim  Fathers"  under 
the  leadership  of  William  Brewster  and  William  Bradford. 
John  Carver  became  their  first  governor.  Most  of  these  col- 
onists had  once  been  part  of  a  congregation  of  Separatists 
in  the  village  of  Scrooby,  near  the  southern  border  of  York- 
shire. Refusing  to  conform  to  the  English  Church,  they  went 
to  Holland  and  later  to  their  new  home  in  America.  The 
king  would  not  give  them  a  charter,  but  he  made  no  objection 
to  their  going  and  said  no  one  should  molest  them  if  they 
behaved  themselves. 

Progress  of  the  East  India  Company.  During  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  English  merchants  established  themselves  at 
Agra  (p.  298),  the  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire  in  India,  and 
in  1612  an  English  "  factory,"  or  trading  station,  was  built  at 
Surat.  The  splendor  and  wealth  of  the  Mogul  emperor  ex- 
cited the  astonishment  of  English  travelers. 

Thomas  Cory  at  visited  Agra  in  1612,  and  rode  upon  one  of 
the  imperial  elephants,  animals  which  were  then  one  of  the 


212  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1612 

wonders  of  the  world.  In  his  address  to  the  emperor,  he 
said,  "I  am  a  poor  traveler  come  hither  from  a  far  coun- 
try, England,  to  look  upon  the  face  of  your  blessed  Majesty, 
and  to  see  your  Majesty's  elephants,  which  kind  of  beast  I 
have  not  seen  in  any  other  country."  Voyages  to  India  were 
then  tedious  and  dangerous,  and  many  ships  and  sailors  were 
lost.  Yet  cloth  was  exported  to  the  annual  value  of  14,000 
pounds,  and  70,000  pounds  a  year  was  saved  by  buying  spices 
direct  from  that  country. 

Irish  Colonization.  The  plans  which  Elizabeth  had 
made  for  colonizing  Ireland  were  carried  on  by  James  and 
by  his  successor  Charles  I.  They  granted  the  greater  part  of 
the  province  of  Ulster  to  Scotch  and  English  colonists. 

Preparation  for  War  and  Death  of  James.  On  the 
return  of  "  Steenie  "  and  "  Baby  Charles  "  from  Madrid,  the 
king  grew  cold  toward  Spain.  A  proposal  was  now  made 
to  marry  Charles  to  Princess  Henrietta  Maria  of  France.  The 
Parliament  rejoiced  at  the  change  of  the  king's  mind,  for 
the  people  hated  Spain  as  much  as  ever.  Taxes  were  voted, 
and  12,000  troops  were  raised  to  assist  the  Protestants  of 
Germany  and  Holland,  and  to  restore  the  Elector  Frederick 
to  his  possessions.  These  troops  were  sent  off  without  money 
or  supplies,  and  in  a  few  weeks  most  of  them  were  dead  or 
dying  from  disease  and  exposure.  Shortly  after  this,  King 
James  died  (1625). 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Why  was  James  supported  by  the  English  people.? 

2.  In  what  way  was  his  notion  of  his  "  divine  right  "  opposed  to  the 

English  idea  of  government? 

3.  Was  the  "  Gunpowder  Plot  "  justifiable?     Give  your  reasons. 

4.  What   mistakes   did   James    make    in    the   management   of   foreign 

affairs?     Why  did  he  make  them? 

5.  What  progress  was  made  in  colonization  and  trade  under  James? 

6.  What  were   the  chief  points   in  dispute  between  James  and  the 

Parliament? 


1625]  CHARLES  I.  213 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.     Towle,  Raleigh:  his  Exploits  and  Voyages; 

Gomme,    Princesses'    Story    Book,    pp.    201-235 ;    Edgar,    Sea 
Kings,  etc.,  pp.  154-185. 

2.  KING   JAMES   AND   THE    WITCHES.     C.    M.    Yonge,    Cameos   from 

English  History,  Vol.  VI. ;  Colby,  Sources  of  English  History, 
pp.  177-181 ;  Ainsworth,  The  Lancashire  Witches. 

3.  PRINCE  CHARLES  AT  THE  SPANISH  COURT.     Yonge,  Cameos  from 

English  History,  VI.,  pp.  151-165. 

4.  CHARACTER  OF  JAMES  I.     Scott,  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Chs.  XXVI.- 

XXXVII. ;  Dickens,  Child's  History  of  England. 

B.    ARBITRARY  TAXATION  AND  CIVIL  WAS. 
Charles  I.,  1625-1649. 

How  the  Reign  Began.  The  new  king  was  very  differ- 
ent from  his  father  in  his  personal  appearance  and  moral 
character,  but  like  him  in  his  idea  of  his  own  importance 
and  dignity.  He  married  the  French  princess,  and  agreed 
to  give  English  Catholics  freedom  of  worship,  a  thing  which 
nowadays  would  seem  to  us  only  just  and  right,  but  which 
then  seemed  to  the  Parliament  treacherous  and  wrong,  espe- 
cially so  because  he  had  promised  them  not  to  do  this  very 
thing. 

Charles  now  took  up  the  fight  his  father  began,  to  show  that 
the  king  was  superior  to  Parliament.  The  House  was  com- 
posed largely  of  wealthy  gentlemen  and  able  lawyers,  for  the 
most  part  Puritans.  They  knew  well  the  history  of  their 
country  and  were  resolved  to  maintain  the  power  of  the  Par- 
liament. This  power  rested  upon  the  fact  that  Parliament 
had  the  sole  right  to  tax  the  people  and  thus  raise  money  for 
the  government.  If  the  king  could  manage  to  raise  money 
by  his  own  methods,  he  could  get  along  without  a  Parliament 
and  govern  as  he  pleased.  And  Parliament  could  not  meet 
unless  the  king  sent  for  them.  Charles  quickly  called  his  first 
Parliament  and  asked  for  money  to  carry  on  the  war  against 


214  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1625 

Spain.  He  had  kept  his  worthless  friend  Buckingham  as  his 
chancellor,  or  chief  minister.  Buckingham  was  disliked  by 
the  Commons,,  and  they  refused  to  grant  money  unless  it 
should  be  spent  by  men  whom  they  could  trust.  It  had  been 
the  custom  of  the  Parliament  to  grant  a  new  king,  for  life, 
a  customs  duty  called  "tonnage  and  poundage."  But  as 
James  and  Charles  had  increased  this  duty  without  asking  its 
consent,  the  Parliament  refused  to  grant  it  for  more  than  one 
year  at  a  time. 

Under  the  advice  of  Buckingham,  the  king  dismissed  the 
Parliament,  and,  going  ahead  with  the  war,  sent  a  fleet  and 
army  to  attack  Cadiz.  The  attack  failed,  however,  and  the 
English  forces  then  tried  to  find  the  Spanish  treasure  fleet; 
but  the  fleet  escaped  them  and  got  safely  to  port.  The  expe- 
dition, thinned  by  disease,  returned  without  accomplishing 
anything. 

The  Second  Parliament.  In  1626,  after  the  return  of 
the  Cadiz  expedition,  the  king  called  another  Parliament. 
This  body  prepared  a  list  of  grievances,  among  which  we 
find  illegal  taxation,  mismanagement  of  the  war,  and  tolera- 
tion to  Catholics.  Buckingham  was  impeached.  Charles 
was  angry  and  sent  word  that  he  would  not  allow  any  of 
his  servants  to  be  questioned  by  them,  and  dissolved  the  Par- 
liament before  the  duke  could  be  brought  to  trial.  During 
this  session,  there  were  several  members  who  were  particu- 
larly outspoken.  Sir  John  Eliot,  John  Hampden,  and  John 
Pym  were  of  this  number.  Charles  arrested  Pym  and  put 
him  in  prison,  but  was  obliged  to  release  him  to  prevent 
trouble. 

For  the  next  two  years  the  king  did  not  call  any  Parlia- 
ment, but  resorted  to  illegal  methods  of  raising  taxes. 
About  eighty  persons,  who  refused  to  pay,  were  put  in  prison. 
He  compelled  the  Catholics  to  pay  the  old  fines  for  not  at- 
tending church.  Soon  France  joined  Spain  in  an  alliance 


1629]  CHARLES  I.  215 

against  him.  The  King  of  France  was  trying  to  put  down  a 
revolt  among  his  Protestant  subjects,  a  task  in  which  Spain 
was  willing  to  help  him. 

With  money  illegally  collected  Charles  sent  a  fleet  under 
the  command  of  Buckingham  to  the  aid  of  the  French 
Protestants  at  La  Bochelle,  but  it  was  entirely  defeated  and 
forced  to  return.  ^>< 

Third  Parliament;  Petition  of  Right.  Again  a  Par- 
liament was  called  together.  Forced  loans  and  arbitrary  im- 
prisonments were  chief  among  the  grievances  complained  of, 
but  there  were  many  others.  The  Parliament  wrote  out  a 
long  list  of  them  which  they  embodied  in  the  "  Petition  of 
Eight/'  the  second  great  document  in  the  history  of  England. 
The  four  leading  provisions  of  the  Petition  are  these:  first, 
that  no  man  be  compelled  to  make  any  loan  to  the  king 
against  his  will,  or  to  pay  any  tax  not  laid  by  Parliament; 
second,  that  soldiers  and  sailors  shall  not  be  quartered  upon 
the  people  without  their  consent ;  third,  that  no  one  shall  be 
tried  by  martial  law  in  time  of  peace;  and,  fourth,  that  no 
man  shall  be  put  in  prison  without  cause  being  shown.  The 
king  for  a  long  time  refused  to  sign  the  petition,  but  finally 
did  so. 

Another  Expedition  to  La  Rochelle.  Sufficient  money 
had  been  given  by  Parliament  to  equip  another  fleet  to  relieve 
La  Kochelle,  which  was  now  besieged  by  the  whole  power  of 
France.  Buckingham  was  to  be  put  in  command  again.  But 
while  making  preparations  to  embark  he  was  stabbed  to  the 
heart  by  a  dissatisfied  lieutenant  in  the  former  expedition. 
The  fleet  sailed  under  a  new  commander,  but  made  as  bad  a 
failure  as  before.  La  Eochelle  was  taken  by  France  and 
"  leveled  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  soil  could  be  plowed  with 
a  plow  like  tilled  land." 

Quarrel  between  King  and  Commons.  Parliament  met 
again  in  1629,  but  the  same  old  quarrel  began  over  supplies 


216  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1629 

and  grievances.  Two  things,  however,  were  done  that  are  to 
be  remembered. 

The  Puritans  had  been  getting  more  and  more  power  in 
England,  and  the  High  Church  party,  to  which  the  king  and 
the  bishops  belonged,  was  not  strongly  supported  either  by 
Parliament  or  by  the  people  at  large.  Instead  of  reading  the 
prayer  book  and  book  of  sermons  to  their  congregations,  the 
Puritan  ministers  would  explain  what  they  understood  the 
prayer  book  to  mean.  To  prevent  this,  Bishop  William  Laud 
induced  Charles  to  issue  an  order  forbidding  ministers  to 
print  or  preach  anything  "  putting  their  own  sense  or  com- 
ment" into  the  meaning  of  the  articles  (p.  175)  or  prayer 
book.  This  order  of  the  king,  when  brought  up  for  discussion 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  enraged  it  to  the  last  degree. 

There  was  one  member  of  the  House  whose  goods  had  been 
seized  because  he  refused  to  pay  the  illegal  taxes  that  the 
king  had  levied.  Sir  John  Eliot  moved  that  the  officers  who 
had  taken  the  goods  should  be  punished.  But  the  king  in- 
formed the  House  that  the  officers  had  acted  according  to 
his  orders  and  should  not  be  punished,  and  soon  after  this 
ordered  the  Commons  to  adjourn. 

But  resolutions  were  at  once  proposed  declaring  that  any 
man  was  an  enemy  of  the  country  who  should  bring  in  any 
change  in  the  creed  and  practices  of  the  church,  or  who 
should  advise  the  collection  of  duties  not  authorized  by  Par- 
liament, or  should  pay  such  duties  unless  forced  to  do  so. 
The  speaker,  when  he  attempted  to  adjourn  the  House  ac- 
cording to  the  king's  order,  was  held  in  his  chair  while  these 
resolutions  were  passed;  and  the  guards  were  already  break- 
ing down  the  doors  to  enforce  the  order  when  the  Parliament 
adjourned. 

Members  of  Parliament  Arrested.  Immediately  after 
the  adjournment,  the  king  arrested  the  members  who  .had 
taken  part  in  the  disorderly  proceedings  attending  the  passage 


1629]  CHARLES  I.  21? 

of  the  resolutions.  Eliot  was  locked  up  in  the  Tower  and 
kept  there  several  years,  till  he  died.  The  others  apologized 
to  the  king  and  were  pardoned.  The  king,  however,  had  no 
right  to  arrest  them  for  anything  done  in  Parliament,  as  only 
that  body  could  arrest  and  punish  its  members. 

Rule  without  a  Parliament.  For  eleven  years  Charles 
ruled  without  calling  another  Parliament  in  England.  He 
was  determined  to  settle  the  question  whether  the  king  or 
the  Parliament  was  to  have  the  higher  authority.  In  this 
experiment  he  was  assisted  chiefly  by  two  men.  William  Laud, 
who  was  soon  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  to  main- 
tain the  king's  rule  in  the  affairs  of  the  church ;  and  Thomas 
Wentworth,  afterwards  Earl  of  Strafford  and  the  king's  chief 
adviser,  tried  to  make  him  the  absolute  ruler  of  the  state. 
Wentworth  had  been  a  member  of  the  Commons,  but,  fore- 
seeing the  coming  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  Parlia- 
ment, he  decided  to  support  the  king.  "You  are  going  to 
be  undone,"  said  Pym,  as  Wentworth  related  his  plans,  "but 
remember,  though  you  leave  us,  we  shall  never  leave  you  while 
your  head  is  on  your  shoulders." 

The  State  of  the  Country  was  favorable  for  the  king's 
plans.  He  had  made  peace  with  both  France  and  Spain,  in 
order  to  have  his  hands  free  at  home.  The  nations  of  Europe 
—  the  German  states,  France  and  Spain  —  were  engaged  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  "War,  in  which  each  had  some  interest 
at  stake  too  important  to  allow  it  to  interfere  in  England. 
The  people  themselves,  now  numbering  about  five  millions 
in  England  and  Wales,  were  prosperous.  Indian  and  Ameri- 
can trade  and  colonization  had  begun  to  be  of  interest  to  mer- 
chants and  adventurers.  More  important  to  Charles  was  the 
emigration,  after  1629,  of  many  thousands  of  his  Puritan 
enemies  to  the  settlements  in  Massachusetts,  where  they  gov- 
erned themselves  under  a  charter  obtained  by  the  Massachu- 
setts Bay  Company. 


218  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1629 

The  king  could  therefore  devote  his  whole  attention  to  two 
things  which  he  thought  concerned  most  his  power  and  dig- 
nity as  an  absolute  sovereign:  the  raising  of  money  without 
a  Parliament,  and  the  establishment  of  the  doctrines  and  cus- 
toms of  the  English  Church,  including  the  use  of  the  prayer 
book,  throughout  his  dominions. 

How  the  King  Raised  Money.  As  a  first  measure,  many 
monopolies  were  granted.  The  whole  business  of  soap  making 
for  the  kingdom  was  given  to  one  company,  which  paid  the 
king  £10,000  for  the  monopoly  and  £8  a  ton  on  all  soap  made. 
When  people  complained  about  its  poor  quality,  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  threatening  fine  and  imprisonment  to  all  who 
spoke  against  the  company.  Similar  monopolies  were  granted 
for  the  handling  of  coal,  salt,  iron,  leather,  tobacco,  beer,  but- 
ter, linen  —  in  fact  every  industry,  from  rag-picking  up,  was 
made  subject  to  a  monopoly.  The  king  reserved  for  himself 
the  sale  of  salt  to  the  Irish  people.  From  the  sale  of  monopo- 
lies he  obtained  about  £200,000. 

The  king  next  set  to  work  to  reclaim  the  royal  forests. 
Large  grants  of  land  had  been  made  from  these,  and  were 
under  cultivation.  The  original  boundaries  were  now  re- 
stored, and  persons  occupying  land  within  such  boundaries 
were  compelled  to  give  it  up,  or  to  pay  the  king  rent  for  it. 
Thus  the  Earl  of  Southampton  suddenly  came  to  owe  the 
king  a  yearly  rent  of  £2,000. 

Ship  Money.  It  would  take  too  long  to  describe  all  the 
illegal  devices  for  raising  money,  such  as  pulling  down  houses 
built  without  royal  license,  doubling  the  duty  on  imports,  and 
so  on,  but  the  tax  known  as  ship  money  was  of  special  impor- 
tance. 

In  early  times  ships  had  been  furnished  by  the  seaport 
towns  to  be  used  by  the  king  in  protecting  their  trade  against 
pirates.  About  1634  the  pirates  of  Algiers  began  to  attack 
English  shipping,  and  the  Dutch  naval  power  was  becoming 


1638]  CHARLES  I.  219 

dangerously  strong.  Piracy  was  common  among  civilized  na- 
tions, even  in  time  of  peace,  and  a  larger  navy  was  necessary. 
Charles  first  called  on  the  seaports  to  furnish  and  equip  a 
certain  number  of  ships,  or,  if  they  preferred,  to  make  a 
money  payment  (ship  money)  instead.  But  soon  Charles  said 
that  the  whole  country  was  interested  in  protecting  commerce, 
and  made  all  the  counties  pay  ship  money. 

At  length  a  Buckinghamshire  squire,  John  Hampden,  re- 
fused to  pay  his  share  of  ship  money,  -on  the  ground  that  it 
was  a  tax  not  voted  by  Parliament.  The  amount  was  only 
twenty  shillings,  but  the  principle  at  stake  was  of  great 
importance.  The  case  was  tried  before  twelve  judget1- 
(1638),  and  five  decided  in  favor  of  Hampden.  As  the  ma- 
jority favored  Charles,  he  continued  the  tax,  but  the  argu- 
ments against  it  went  through  the  country  and  set  people 
thinking ;  besides,  it  was  understood  that  the  seven  judges  did 
not  dare  to  say  what  they  really  thought,  for  fear  of  the  king, 

The  Work  of  Laud  in  the  Church.  Meanwhile  Laud 
was  busy  in  making  the  Puritan  churches  use  the  prayer  book 
and  conduct  service  according  to  the  Act  of 
Uniformity.  In  1604  the  clergy  of  the  estab- 
lished church  had  adopted  a  body  of  canons, 
or  rules,  saying  how  the  ministers  should  con- 
duct church  service.  Laud  undertook  now  to 
enforce  these.  The  canon  law  said  that  the 
communion  table  should  be  in  the  east  end  of 
the  church,  but  the  Puritans  wanted  it  in  the 
middle.  The  minister  was  required  to  wear 
a  white  robe  when  he  conducted  service,  and 
the  prayer  book  was  to  be  accurately  followed,  SCOTCH 
not  read  here  and  there  as  the  minister  saw  fit.  COVENANTER. 

The  attempt  by  Scottish  bishops,  on  Laud's  advice,  to  in- 
troduce a  prayer  book  in  Scotland  led  to  trouble  at  once,  for 
most  of  the  Scots  were  Presbyterians.  When  the  minister 


220  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1637 

tried  to  read  the  new  service  to  the  congregation  in  St.  Giles 
Church  at  Edinburgh,  they  rose  up  and  drove  him  from  the 
pulpit.  Eiots  began  wherever  the  new  service  was  intro- 
duced, and  the  people  signed  a  "  Covenant/'  pledging  them- 
selves to  resist  all  attempts  to  change  their  religion. 

Star  Chamber  Court.  To  enforce  the  collection  of  the 
new  taxes  and  the  use  of  the  prescribed  church  service,  and  to 
punish  all  who  spoke  or  wrote  anything  against  the  govern- 
ment, the  old  courts  of  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission 
were  again  set  up.  The  judges  in  these  courts  were  the  king's 
own  officers,  and  as  there  was  no  jury  every  offender  was  con- 
victed and  punished  as  the  king  pleased. 

When  Wentworth  was  made  Lord  of  the  Northern  Counties 
and  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland,  he  set  up  courts  of  his  own,  like 
the  ones  at  Westminster.  Throughout  the  country,  the  usual 
courts  were  set  aside,  and  the  same  man  became  both  law- 
maker and  judge.  Though  Wentworth  robbed  and  bullied  the 
Irish,  he  greatly  improved  industrial  conditions  during  his 
six  years  of  rule.  The  manufacture  of  linen  was  begun, 
and  agriculture  and  trade  increased.  But  he  took  from  the 
people  a  large  part  of  their  land  and  compelled  them  to  grant 
taxes  to  the  king  besides.  He  then  wrote  to  Laud,  "  The 
king  is  now  as  absolute  here  as  any  prince  in  the  world  can 
be,"  and  advised  him  to  adopt  in  England  the  policy  that  he 
was  using  in  Ireland,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "thor- 
ough." 

The  Bishops'  Wars.  The  English  people  had  so  far 
patiently  endured  the  tyranny  of  the  king.  But  the  hot- 
tempered  Scotch  Covenanters  had  taken  up  arms  at  once,  and 
when  Charles  led  his  army  against  them  to  enforce  the  use 
of  the  prayer  book,  they  met  him  with  a  better  army  than  his 
own,  and  he  dared  not  fight. 

In  1640  he  again  called  a  Parliament,  but  it  advised  him 
not  to  fight  Scotland,  and  brought  up  the  old  tale  about 


1641]  CHARLES  I.  221 

grievances.,  which  he  did  not  want  to  hear.  What  he  wanted 
was  money,  and  as  he  saw  he  could  not  get  it  without  giving 
up  his  idea  of  ruling  by  "  divine  right/'  he  sent  them  home 
within  three  weeks. 

Charles  mustered  another  army  against  the  Scots.  He 
raised  money  to  pay  them  by  buying  a  cargo  of  pepper  on 
credit,  and  selling  it  at  once  for  cash.  But  his  soldiers  on 
the  march  showed  their  sympathy  with  the  Scots  by  breaking 
into  the  churches  and  moving  the  communion  tables  into  the 
middle  of  the  building.  They  allowed  themselves  to  be  de- 
feated at  Newburn  (p.  6),  and  the  Scots  passed  on  and  cap- 
tured Newcastle.  The  king  made  a  truce  with  the  Covenant- 
ers, and  was  forced  to  summon  a  Parliament  for  the  fifth 
time,  the  most  famous  Parliament  that  ever  made  laws  for 
England. 

The  Long  Parliament  continued  in  session  for  thirteen 
years.  The  former  Parliaments  of  Charles  had  been  content 
to  lay  before  him  a  list  of  grievances,  but  now,  as  Pym,  its 
chief  leader,  expressed  it,  "they  must  pull  up  the  causes  of 
grievances  by  the  roots/' 

They  pulled  up  the  chief  "  root "  by  accusing  the  Earl  of 
Straff ord  (Wentworth)  of  high  treason,  because  he  had 
planned  to  bring  an  Irish  army  to  overawe  Parliament.  As 
it  was  impossible  to  prove  that  he  had  conspired  to  the  death 
or  dethronement  of  the  king  or  his  heirs,  the  legal  definition 
of  high  treason,  he  was  executed  under  an  act  of  attainder; 
that  is,  an  act  of  Parliament  which  condemned  him  to  death 
without  a  trial.  Charles  had  promised  Strafford  that  he 
would  not  allow  him  to  suffer  "in  life,  honor,  or  fortune," 
but  he  was  so  overawed  by  the  hatred  of  the  people  that  he 
assented  to  the  act  against  his  friend  and  faithful  servant. 
"  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes,"  said  the  earl  when  told  that 
he  must  die.  But  Strafford  was  a  brave  man,  and  as  he  went 
upon  the  scaffold  he  said,  "  I  thank  God  that  I  am  not  afraid 

NlVER  — 


222  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1041 

of  death,  but  do  as  cheerfully  put  off  my  doublet  at  this  time 
as  ever  I  did  when  I  went  to  bed." 

Archbishop  Laud  was  also  impeached  and  put  in  prison, 
but  was  not  tried  and  executed  until  four  years  afterwards. 

The  general  hatred  of  the  king,  and  the  danger  that  the 
Scottish  army  might  march  against  him,  forced  the  king  to 
give  assent  to  some  laws  which  made  Parliament  stronger 
than  ever.  They  required  that  a  Parliament  must  meet  at 
least  once  in  three  years,  whether  the  king  called  it  or  not; 
provided  that  the  present  Parliament  could  not  be  dissolved 
by  the  king  without  its  consent ;  abolished  the  Star  Chamber 
and  High  Commission  courts;  declared  ship  money  illegal; 
and  limited  the  king's  claims  on  forests. 

Bishops  and  Presbyters.  So  far  the  Parliament  had 
acted  harmoniously.  But  when  they  took  up  matters  of  re- 
ligion, they  divided  into  parties.  There  were  many  who 
wished  to  keep  the  existing  system  of  church  government  by 
bishops,  and  the  use  of  the  prayer  book  in  all  the  churches. 
The  Puritans  who  were  opposed  to  these  were  themselves 
divided  into  Presbyterians  and  Independents,  or  Separatists 
(pp.  194-5).  Many  people  feared  a  "  new  presbyter  "  quite  as 
much  as  they  were  afraid  of  an  "  old  priest."  A  bill  to 
abolish  the  office  of  bishop  caused  fierce  discussion  but  did 
not  pass.  Before  long,  however,  the  bishops  were  excluded 
from  their  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  King's  Plans.  Charles  had,  unwillingly,  consented  to 
all  the  measures  of  Parliament,  but  secretly  he  was  trying  to 
get  help  in  Scotland  and  England  to  put  them  down.  In 
order  to  make  friends  with  the  Scotch,  he  went  to  Edinburgh 
in  1641,  agreed  to  all  the  demands  of  the  Scotch  Parliament, 
and  secretly  tried  to  get  them  to  send  him  an  army. 

The  Catholic  lords  in  Ireland  had  as  little  liking  for' the 
Puritan  Parliament  as  they  had  for  the  Puritan  colonists  that 
had  settled  among  them.  Impatient  at  the  schemes  for  per- 


1642] 


CHARLES   I. 


223 


secuting  the  Catholics,  the  native  Irish  fell  upon  the  English 
settlers  in  Ulster,  and  massacred  thousands.  The  king  was 
responsible  for  this  insurrection ;  for 
while  he  did  not  order  it,  he  had  been  in- 
triguing for  the  raising  of  an  army  of 
Irish  soldiers.  It  was  recognized  that  an 
army  should  be  sent  to  Ireland  to  put 
down  the  rebellion ;  but  as  the  Parliament 
did  not  dare  entrust  the  command  to  the 
king,  for  fear  he  would  use  it  against 
them,  none  was  sent. 

The  Grand  Remonstrance.  The 
promises  that  the  king  made  in  both 
England  and  Scotland,  to  reign  according 
to  the  laws,  deceived  many  who  did  not 
understand  his  treacherous  nature.  When 
he  returned  to  London,  he  was  given  a 
splendid  reception,  and  the  people  gave  signs  of  returning 
loyalty.  But  Pym  and  other  Parliamentary  leaders  were  not 
deceived.  In  order  to  keep  the  king's  evil  conduct  fresh 
before  the  people,  they  had  drawn  up  the  "  Grand  Remon- 
strance."  This  was  a  review  of  his  whole  reign,  describing 
all  the  tyrannical  acts  of  which  he  had  been  guilty.  Many 
members,  who  thought  that  the  king  had  given  up  his  high 
notions  of  "  divine  right,"  were  very  unwilling  that  the  docu- 
ment should  be  printed.  There  was  a  fierce  strife  when  the 
question  was  voted  upon,  and  members  nearly  came  to  blows. 
But  the  Remonstrance  passed,  was  presented  to  the  king, 
and  was  published  to  the  country. 

Attempt  to  Arrest  the  Five  Members.  The  king  had 
been  gathering  followers  about  him  at  Whitehall  -r-  adven- 
turers, discharged  officers,  and  others  —  until  he  had  a 
force  of  several  hundred.  These  frequently  came  into  con- 
flict with  the  London  crowd,  which  was  Puritan  in  sym- 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1G42 


pathy.  Some  of  the  Puritans  cut  their  hair  short,  and  this 
gave  rise  to  the  name  "  roundheads."  The  followers  of 
Charles  were  called  "  cavaliers."  The  Parliament  were  afraid 
that  these  disturbances  would  become  dangerous  to  them,  and 
demanded  a  guard  of  the  king.  It  was  refused,  but  Charles 
gave  his  word,  "  on  the  honor  of  a  king,  for  the  security  of 
every  one  of  them  from  violence." 

Just  at  this  point,  the  king  might  have  recovered  his 
power.     There  was  a  party  in  Parliament  that  favored  him. 


CHAKLE.S  DEMANDS  THE  FIVE  MEMBERS. 

while  his  opponents  were  divided  into  religious  factions ;  his 
agreement  to  the  demands  of  the  Scotch  Parliament  had 
made  him  friends ;  and  his  assent  to  the  measures  of  the  Com- 
mons had  won  him  support  in  London.  He  now  took  a  step 
which  showed  the  treachery  he  had  planned,  and  which  de- 
stroyed his  influence.  The  queen  urged  him  to  seize  five 
members  of  Parliament  who  had  been  leaders  in  passing  the 


1642]  CHARLES  I.  225 

Bemonstrance.  Her  only  idea  of  a  king  was  that  he  should  be 
absolute,  as  the  King  of  France  was.  She  advised  him  to 
go  and  pull  "those  rogues  out  by  the  ears." 

The  king  went  to  the  House  with  several  hundred  armed 
men.  He  left  them  at  the  door,  advanced  to  the  speaker's 
desk,  and  inquired  for  Pym,  Hampden,  and  three  other  mem- 
bers, whom  he  had  accused  of  treasonable  correspondence  with 
the  Scotch  Covenanters.  The  speaker  replied :  "  Sir,  I  have 
neither  eyes  to  see,  nor  ears  to  hear,  except  as  the  House  shall 
direct  me."  The  five  members,  warned  of  their  danger,  had 
been  safely  concealed  in  the  city,  and  the  king  was  forced 
to  retire  without  them.  He  had  forcibly  and  unlawfully  in- 
vaded the  rights  of  the  House  and  had  failed.  The  citi- 
zens were  roused;  an  armed  force  was  raised,  and  the  five 
members  were  escorted  back  to  Westminster. 

King  and  Parliament  Prepare  for  War.  Soon  after  this, 
the  king  left  the  city  with  a  considerable  force,  and  tried  to 
seize  the  arms  stored  at  Hull.  But  the  commandant  was 
faithful  to  the  Parliament,  and  refused  to  admit  him.  The 
queen,  taking  the  crown  jewels,  hurried  to  the  continent  to 
raise  money  and  troops.  On  August  22,  1642,  Charles  un- 
furled his  flag  at  Nottingham  and  prepared  for  war.  The 
Parliament  called  out  the  militia,  appointed  the  Earl  of 
Essex  general,  and  the  army  moved  northward  to  meet  the 
king. 

Civil  War.  The  whole  country  entered  vigorously  into 
the  war;  for  political,  religious,  and  business  interests  were 
bound  up  in  it.  The  merchants,  small  farmers,  and  those  of 
the  nobility  who  were  Puritans,  were  on  the  side  of  the  Par- 
liament; while  the  large  landholders,  the  clergy,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  nobility  sided  with  the  king.  In  general 
it  was  the  northern  and  western  counties  that  favored  the 
royalist  party.  The  commanders  of  the  king's  army  were 
the  Earl  of  Lindsay  and  Prince  Eupert,  the  nephew  of  Charles, 


226 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1642 


a  dashing  cavalry  leader,  but  lacking  in  judgment.  The  royal 
army  marched  southward  from  Nottingham  and  met  the 
enemy  at  Edgehill.  Here  Eupert  defeated  the  parliamentary 
cavalry,  but  their  infantry  held  the  ground.  The  parliamen- 
tary forces,  however,  retreated  toward  London,  and  victory 
lay  with  the  king.  It  was  his  hope  to  cut  off  London  from 

the  sea  and  by  a 
bold  move  to  cap- 
ture that  city  and 
end  the  war  at  a 
blow.  He  waited 
till  the  opportuni- 
ty passed,  for  the 
militia  rallied  to 
the  defense  of  the 
city,  reenf  orce- 
ments  came  in, 
and  the  king  was 
forced  to  retire  to 
Oxford,  which  be- 
came his  head- 
quarters for  the 
rest  of  the  war. 

The  fighting 
went  on  all  over 
England.  During 
the  first  year  of 
the  war  the  king 
one  skirmish  the 
garrisons  of  the 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  CIVIL  WAK. 


was    victorious    nearly    everywhere.     In 

great  leader   Hampden   fell.     But  a   few 

parliamentary  army  held  strongholds  which  the  royal  forces 

could  not  take;  and  the  king  was  therefore  unable  to  gather 

all  his  troops  for  an  attack  on  London. 

In  the  second  year  of  the  war  a  "  Solemn  League  and 


1644] 


CHARLES  I. 


227 


Covenant"  was  entered  into  by  the  Scotch  and  the  English 
Parliament,  by  which  the  latter  bound  themselves  to  reform 
the  Church  of  England  according  to  the  Presbyterian  system 
and  the  Word  of  God.  In  the  beginning  of  1644,  a  Scotch 
army  crossed  the  border  to  fight  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament. 
About  the  same  time,  an  army  from  Ireland  entered  Wales 
to  fight  for  the  king;  but  it  was  crushed  at  Nantwich  by 
the  parliamentary  general  Fairfax.  Among  the  prisoners 
was  George  Monk,  who,  after  two  years'  imprisonment  in 
the  Tower,  entered  the  parliamentary  army  and  in  time  rose 
to  high  command. 

Oliver  Cromwell.     So  far  only  one  leader  had  never  met 
defeat.     Oliver   Cromwell   had  united  the   eastern  counties 

into  an  association,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  keeping  the  war  beyond 
their  borders.  He  had  defeated 
a  royalist  army,  and  had  enabled 
Fairfax  to  hold  his  ground  in 
Yorkshire.  Cromwell  had  said  to 
Hampden  after  the  battle  of 
Edgehill,  "We  can  never  win 
with  such  men  as  you  have;  old 
tapsters  and  servants,  low-born 
and  mean-spirited  fellows,  can 
never  win  against  gentlemen,  who 
have  honor,  courage,  and  resolu- 
He  then  went  among  the  Puritans  in  the  eastern  coun- 


•V   l      ^ 


CROMWELL. 


tion.' 


ties  and  enlisted  men  after  his  own  heart,  stern,  God-fearing, 
determined  men,  who  prayed  before  they  fought,  and  fought 
for  the  love  of  the  cause,  believing  that  God  would  give  them 
victory.  In  a  few  months  he  had  trained  and  equipped  a 
cavalry  regiment  which  had  no  equal  on  either  side. 

Prince  Eupert  with  20,000  men  met  the  Scotch  and  Crom- 
well's new  troops  at   Marston  Moor.     The  stern,  religious 


228  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1644 

Puritan  met  the  gentleman  of  honor.  Cromwell's  charge  on 
Rupert's  cavalry  crumbled  them  to  pieces  and  scattered  them, 
as  he  said,  "like  a  little  dust."  But  he  did  not  pursue. 
Wheeling  about,  he  promptly  charged  the  royalist  infantry 
with  the  same  result.  The  north  of  England  was  conquered. 
Elsewhere  Charles  was  winning  victories. 

The  New  Model.  Cromwell,  as  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, now  attacked  the  weak  spot  in  the  parliamentary 
army.  The  officers  were  nearly  all  of  the  Presbyterian  party. 
They  feared  the  growing  strength  of  the  Independents,  to 
which  party  Cromwell  belonged.  This  party  wished  to  do 
away  with  the  kingship  and  the  House  of  Lords  and  make  the 
churches  independent  of  the  government.  While  the  Presby- 
terians wished  to  defeat  the  king,  they  did  not  wish  to  beat 
him  too  badly,  for  fear  that  the  Independents  would  become 
masters.  A  "  Self-denying  Ordinance  "  was  introduced,  pro- 
viding that  members  of  Parliament  should  resign  their  offices 
in  the  army;  and  soon  Parliament  reorganized  its  troops  as 
the  New  Model  Army,  largely  with  new  officers.  Fairfax  was 
made  general  and  Cromwell  lieutenant  general. 

Battle  of  Naseby,  June  14,  1645.  The  New  Model 
Army,  after  a  year  of  training,  met  the  king  at  Naseby.  Ru- 
pert commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  royalists,  Cromwell 
the  right  wing  of  the  parliamentarians.  Both  were  victorious, 
but  Cromwell,  returning  from  the  charge,  attacked  Rupert's 
horse  in  flank  and  routed  them. 

The  king  was  hopelessly  defeated.  The  small  armies  that 
remained  to  him  in  different  parts  of  the  country  were  soon 
scattered,  and  the  war  was  over. 

Negotiations  with  the  King.  And  now  came  a  time  of 
tedious  attempts  to  make  peace.  The  king  might  still  have 
made  an  honorable  arrangement  with  the  Parliament  and 
saved  his  life  and  his  throne,  but  he  continued  '  plotting, 
hoping  that  the  rival  parties  in  Parliament  would  destroy  each 


1&19]  CHARLES  1.  229 

other,  or  that  the  Scots  would  come  to  his  assistance.  The 
king  had  surrendered  to  the  Scottish  army,  who  turned  him 
over  to  the  English  Parliament.  The  army  then  took  charge 
of  him,  and  offered  to  make  peace  with  him  and  to  allow  the 
Church  of  England  to  be  set  up  again,  if  he  would  agree  that 
no  one  should  be  compelled  to  attend,  and  that  Protestants 
should  have  full  religious  liberty.  He  refused  these  terms 
and  escaped  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  met  commission- 
ers from  Scotland  and  made  an  agreement  with  them  by  which 
they  were  to  renew  the  war. 

But  the  Scotch  army  was  badly  defeated  by  Cromwell  at 
Preston.  Charles  was  again  captured  and  confined  safely  in 
Hurst  Castle,  where  no  help  could  reach  him. 

Pride's  Purge.  The  Presbyterian  party  in  the  Parliament 
still  wanted  to  make  terms  with  the  king.  But  the  army, 
now  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  Independents,  had 
lost  all  patience  with  him,  and  determined  to  have  a  Parlia- 
ment that  would  obey  its  will.  One  day  Colonel  Pride  ap- 
peared with  a  body  of  troopers  sent  by  the  Independents,  and 
expelled  more  than  a  hundred  of  the  members  who  favored 
the  king.  The  remaining  sixty  were  called  by  their  enemies 
the  "  Rump/' 

Trial  and  Execution  of  the  King.  The  "Rump"  ap- 
pointed a  special  High  Court  to  try  Charles  for  his  past 
misdeeds.  He  refused  to  plead,  on  the  ground  that  they  had 
no  power  to  try  him.  But  they  accused  and  convicted  him  of 
high  treason  against  the  nation.  The  conclusion  of  the  death- 
warrant  read,  "  For  all  of  which  treasons  and  crimes  this 
court  doth  adjudge  that  he,  the  said  Charles  Stuart,  as  a 
tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  public  enemy  to  the  good 
people  of  this  nation,  shall  be  put  to  death  by  severing  his 
head  from  his  body."  His  execution  took  place  in  front  of 
his  own  palace  of  Whitehall,  on  the  30th  of  January,  1649. 
He  behaved  with  great  dignity  and  calmness,  and  said  that  he 


230 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1G49 


CHABLES'S  FAREWELL  TO  HIS  FAMILY. 

died  an  enemy  to  arbitrary  rule,  and  a  martyr  to  the  people. 
But  the  executioner,  as  he  held  up  the  head  before  the  multi- 
tude, cried  out,  "  This  is  the  head  of  a  traitor! " 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  In  what  ways  did  Charles  infringe  upon  the  rights  of  Parliament? 

2.  What  was  the  significance  of  the  Petition  of  Right?     Name  its 

chief  provisions. 

3.  Explain  the  working  and  effect  of  the  king's  monopolies. 

4.  What  actions   of  Charles  brought   on   the  war?     How   could   he 

have  saved  his  crown? 

5.  Which  two  battles  of  the  war  were  most  important?    Why? 
G.  What  questions  were  settled  by  the  Civil  War? 

7.  Why  did  the  people  object  to  paying  ship  money? 

8.  Name  the  chief  laws  of  the  Long  Parliament  and  tell  why  each 

was  made. 

9.  Was  it  just  to  execute  Strafford  and  Laud?     The  king?     Give  rea- 

sons.    How  could  the  king's  execution  have  been  avoided? 


1649]  CROMWELL  231 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  JOHN  HAMPDEN.     Mowry,  First  Steps  in  the  History  of  England, 

Ch.  XIV. ;  Green,  Short  History,  pp.  500,  550. 

2.  THE  EARL  OF  STRAFFOBD.     Kendall,   Source  Book,   pp.   232-237; 

Traill,  Lord  Strafford. 

3.  TRIAL    AND    EXECUTION    OF    CHARLES    I.      Yonge,    Cameos    from 

English    History,    VII.,   pp.    110-128;    Lee,    Source    Book,   pp. 
364-372. 

4.  CROMWELL'S  "IRONSIDES."     Mowry,  First  Steps  in  the  History  of 

England,  Ch.  XX.;  Firth,  Cromwell,  Ch.  VI. 

C.     CROMWELL  AND  THE  COMMONWEALTH. 

The  Establishment  of  the  Commonwealth  followed  the 
death  of  the  king.  There  remained  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons about  sixty  members,  who  declared  that  England  was 
a  commonwealth,  without  any  king  or  House  of  Lords.  In 
this  action  the  Eump,  which  now  called  itself  the  Parliament, 
was  supported  by  the  army,  but  not  by  the  majority  of  the 
people.  So  instead  of  calling  for  the  election  of  a  new  House 
it  kept  the  power  in  its  own  hands.  Forty-one  men  were 
selected  by  the  House  as  a  Council  of  State,  who  were  to  have 
charge  of  the  executive  part  of  the  government.  John  Brad- 
shaw  was  chosen  president  of  the  Council. 

War  in  Ireland.  On  the  death  of  the  king,  Ireland  and 
Scotland  had  acknowledged  his  eldest  son  as  King  Charles  II. 
Prince  Eupert  was  on  the  Irish  coast  with  a  fleet.  The  new 
king  had  already  been  crowned  in  Scotland,  and  Scotch  and 
Irish  armies  would  soon  be  on  the  way  to  London  to  crush 
the  new  republic.  Cromwell,  as  the  ablest  soldier,  was  put  in 
command  of  the  army.  After  subduing  a  mutiny  among  the 
soldiers,  he  led  them  into  Ireland.  This  country  had  been 
in  a  fearful  condition  of  disorder  for  eight  years.  After  the 
king's  execution  the  Irish  united  strongly  for  Charles  II. 
Only  Dublin  and  Londonderry  held  out  (p.  232). 

Landing  at  Dublin,  Cromwell  marched  northward  and 
besieged  Drogheda  with  its  garrison  of  2,000  men.  Their 


10  Longitude 


1651]  CROMWELL  233 

commander  was  asked  to  surrender  in  a  note  ending  in  these 
words :  *'  If,  upon  refusing  this  offer,  that  which  you  like 
not  befalls  you,  you  will  know  whom  to  blame."  The  officer 
would  not  surrender,  and  Cromwell  stormed  the  fort  and 
put  the  entire  garrison  to  the  sword.  In  defense  of  his  se- 
verity he  wrote,  "  I  believe  this  bitterness  will  save  much 
effusion  of  blood,  through  the  goodness  of  God."  Wexford, 
in  the  south,  was  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  After  that  the 
other  posts  surrendered.  Plague  and  famine  followed  in  the 
wake  of  the  sword,  the  supporters  of  the  Stuarts  fled  to 
the  continent,  and  the  peace  of  despair  settled  on  the  country. 

War  with  the  Scots.  Charles  II.,  having  signed  the 
Covenant  agreeing  to  establish  the  Presbyterian  Church,  was 
supported  by  the  Scots  with  a  strong  army.  Cromwell  met 
them  (1650)  with  16,000  men.  The  Scots  cut  off  his  retreat 
and  posted  themselves  on  a  hill  near  the  sea,  where  it  was 
difficult  to  attack  them.  Cromwell  waited  till  they  began  a 
change  of  position,  and  then  succeeded  in  utterly  routing  them 
in  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  A  year  later  the  Scots  invaded  Eng- 
land but  were  again  defeated  at  Worcester.  Charles  rode 
away  alone,  and  after  many  narrow  escapes  from  capture, 
reached  France.  Long  after,  a  tree,  called  the  "  royal  oak/' 
was  pointed  out  where  the  prince  had  concealed  himself  among 
the  branches  while  his  pursuers  searched  the  woods  for  him 
in  vain.  Cromwell  called  this  battle  his  "  crowning  mercy." 
He  never  had  occasion  to  draw  his  sword  again. 

The  Dutch  War.  Cromwell  and  the  army  were  now  su- 
preme. But  they  had  fought  for  the  liberty  and  honor  of 
England,  and  not  for  themselves  alone.  During  the  war,  the 
Dutch  had  devoted  themselves  steadily  to  trade,  and  their 
merchant  vessels  were  larger  and  swifter  than  those  of  Eng- 
land. Goods  that  were  once  brought  to  England  by  her  own 
merchantmen  were  now  carried  by  the  Dutch.  Cromwell 
determined  to  stop  this,  and  to  make  England  supreme  again. 


234  THE   COMMONWEALTH  f!651 

A  Navigation  Act  was  passed,  which  ordered  that  all  goods 
landed  in  the  ports  of  England  must  be  brought  in  English 
ships,  or  in  the  ships  of  the  country  from  which  the  goods 
came.  He  demanded  that  all  ships  sailing  the  Channel  should 
salute  the  English  flag.  As  the  Dutch  refused  to  acknowledge 
his  extravagant  claim,  war  began. 

Robert  Blake,  who  had  fought  successfully  in  the  last  war, 
was  made  "  general  of  the  sea."  He  destroyed  the  fleet  of 
Prince  Rupert,  and  fought  four  noted  engagements  with  the 
Dutch.  The  first  two  were  victories.  In  1652,  with  forty 
ships,  he  met  Van  Tromp  with  eighty.  The  Dutchman 
was  victorious  and  sailed  through  the  Channel  with  a  great 
Dutch  broom  at  the  masthead,  signifying  by  this  that  he  had 
swept  the  English  from  the  seas.  But  Blake  was  ready  again 
in  a  few  months,  and  they  met  off  Calais,  this  time  with  equal 
forces,  and  Van  Tromp  was  defeated. 

Blake  next  took  an  English  fleet  into  the  Mediterranean 
(1654),  to  chastise  the  pirates  who  had  long  preyed  on  mer- 
chant vessels.  Tunis  was  attacked,  a  Turkish  fleet  of  nine 
ships  destroyed,  and  an  army  of  3,000  slain  and  captured.  Al- 
giers and  Tripoli  were  taken,  and  many  Englishmen  who  had 
been  made  slaves  were  set  free.  The  following  year,  he  de- 
feated the  Spanish,  closing  the  war  with  the  most  daring 
exploit  in  his  history.  He  sailed  into  the  harbor  of  Santa 
Cruz,  in  the  Canaries,  which  was  strongly  defended  by  forts 
and  ships  of  war,  and  destroyed  and  rifled  a  Spanish  treasure 
fleet  returning  from  South  America,  escaping  with  a  loss  of 
only  one  ship.  He  died  on  his  return  to  England,  and  Crom- 
well buried  him  with  the  highest  honors  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

The  deeds  of  Blake  secured  for  the  new  republic  the  respect 
of  foreign  nations,  that  had  before  refused  to  recognize  it. 
Cromwell  was  honored,  and  his  friendship  sought,  by  the 
greatest  kings  of  Europe.  As  the  price  of  his  aid  to  France 


1658J 


CROMWELL 


235 


against  Spanish  Flanders,  Dunkirk  (map,  p.  274)  was  added 
to  the  English  possessions. 

Cromwell  and  the  Parliament.  In  the  mean  time  the 
Rump  had  come  to  be  very  much  disliked.  In  the  first  place, 
it  did  not  represent  the  people,  as  it  was  only  a  fraction  of 
a  Parliament  elected  thirteen  years  before.  Then  it  had  be- 
come corrupt  and  selfish.  Cromwell  was  anxious  to  have  a 
new  Parliament  chosen  that  should  represent  the  nation  more 


CROMWELL  DISSOLVES  THE  RUMP. 

fully.  And  yet  he  did  not  dare  give  the  people  full  freedom 
of  election,  for  fear  that  the  Puritans  and  all  their  work  would 
be  overturned,  and  Charles  II.  invited  to  take  his  throne. 

At  last  the  Eump  agreed  upon  a  law  providing  for  a  new 
Parliament,  but  also  providing  that  they  should  retain  their 
seats  as  members  of  it.  Cromwell  was  angry  at  this,  for  he 
believed  it  to  be  selfish  and  dishonest.  He  could  prevent  the 
passing  of  the  bill  only  by  breaking  up  the  Parliament.  So 


236  THE  PROTECTORATE  [1653 

he  took  a  company  of  soldiers  to  the  House  at  the  next  meet- 
ing, and,  after  listening  a  while,  he  stepped  out  on  the  floor 
and  began  to  scold  various  members  for  their  bad  personal 
habits  and  worse  public  actions.  Being  interrupted,  he  cried 
out  angrily,  "  Come,  we  have  had  enough  of  this,  you  must  get 
out  and  make  way  for  honest  men.  You  are  not  fit  to  sit- 
here  any  longer."  He  called  his  soldiers  and  cleared  the 
room.  He  then  locked  the  door  and  put  the  key  in  his  pocket. 
The  country  was  glad  to  be  rid  of  the  Eump.  As  Cromwell 
expressed  it,  "  Not  even  a  dog  barked  at  their  going." 

Barebone's  Parliament.  Cromwell  and  his  officers  now 
selected  a  Parliament  themselves.  Only  men  who  were  known 
to  be  religious  and  honorable  were  allowed  to  sit  in  it. 
Cromwell  told  them  the  country  ought  to  be  ruled  by  godly 
men,  and  that  he  had  chosen  them  because  they  were  known 
to  be  such.  As  it  consisted  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  it  was  called  the  Little  Parliament;  but  the  royalists 
nicknamed  it  Barebone's  Parliament  from  the  curious  name 
of  a  London  leather  merchant,  Praise-God  Barebone,  who 
was  a  member. 

The  members  of  this  Parliament  proved  to  be  very  poor 
statesmen.  They  wanted  to  abolish  church  rates,  without 
providing  any  other  means  of  supporting  the  clergy ;  and  they 
announced  that  the  reign  of  the  Saints  had  come,  they  being 
the  Saints.  Some  of  the  more  sensible  among  them  got  up 
early  one  morning  (Dec.  11,  1653)  and  stole  a  march  on  the 
other  "  Saints  "  by  passing  a  measure  putting  all  power  into 
the  hands  of  Cromwell  and  a  council  of  twenty-one  men. 
They  then  adjourned. 

Cromwell  Lord  Protector.  An  "  Instrument  of  Govern- 
ment "  was  now  drawn  up  by  Cromwell's  friends,  telling  how 
he  was  to  govern.  Parliament  was  to  make  the  laws  allowed 
by  the  Instrument,  and  a  Council  of  State  was  to  assist  the 
Lord  Protector,  who  could  not  act  without  its  approval.  The 


1658]  CROMWELL  237 

object  of  the  Instrument  was  to  prevent  either  the  Parliament 
or  the  Protector  from  getting  too  much  power.  Of  course 
Cromwell  was  the  first  Protector. 

Cromwell's  Second  Parliament  was  elected  in  1654.  No 
royalists  or  Catholics  were  allowed  to  vote.  This  Parlia- 
ment began  by  trying  to  break  down  the  form  of  government 
which  had  been  established,  although  they  were  pledged  not 
to  alter  it.  The  explanation  is  that  the  whole  country  was 
tired  of  the  strict  Puritan  rule,  tired  of  the  rule  of  the  army 
headed  by  Cromwell,,  and  was  ready  to  sweep  it  all  away  at 
the  first  chance.  Cromwell  dismissed  this  Parliament  after  a 
few  months,  and  got  along  without  another  for  two  years. 

To  prevent  a  revolt  of  the  royalists  and  to  enforce  the 
payment  of  taxes  which  the  Instrument  had  allowed  him  to 
raise,  he  divided  the  country  into  ten  military  districts,  and 
placed  over  each  a  major  general,  who  was  to  keep  order  and 
enforce  the  law;  but  as  soon  as  the  country  became  quiet, 
he  withdrew  them,  and  allowed  things  to  go  on  in  the  usual 
way.  He  would  not  tolerate  revolt  or  disorder,  and  those 
who  stirred  up  rebellion  against  him  soon  found  their  way 
to  the  scaffold. 

Cromwell's  Third  Parliament  met  in  1656,  just  after  one 
of  Blake's  Spanish  victories.  When  a  train  of  thirty-eight 
wagons,  loaded  with  silver,  passed  through  the  streets  of 
London,  the  people  applauded  him  as  they  never  had  before. 
The  Parliament  voted  him  money,  and  offered  to  make  him 
king,  a  title  which  he  would  not  accept.  An  Upper  House  of 
Parliament  was  again  established,  and  an  effort  was  made  to 
get  back  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  old  form  of  government. 
The  Parliament  embodied  these  changes  in  a  law  called  "  The 
Humble  Petition  and  Advice."  Things  went  well  for  a  time, 
and  then  the  two  Houses  began  to  quarrel.  Some  conspired 
with  the  royalists,  others  took  measures  to  have  Cromwell's 
office  abolished.  An  invasion  was  threatened  from  Ireland, 


238  THE  PROTECTORATE  [1658 

another  one  from  Spain,  and  the  two  Houses  could  agree  on 
nothing.  Finally,  in  February,  1658,  he  appeared  before  the 
Parliament  and  said,  "I  do  dissolve  this  Parliament,  and 
may  God  judge  between  you  and  me ! "  "  If  it  had  continued 
a  few  days  longer/'  he  wrote  afterwards,  "  all  had  been  blood 
on  Charles  Stuart's  account." 

Cromwell  had  tried  to  make  a  settled  government  and  had 
failed.  He  had  been  tolerant  of  all  the  Protestant  sects, 
except  when  they  wanted  to  disturb  the  government.  He  was 
a  friend  to  the  Quakers,  sent  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  and 
allowed  the  Jews  to  return  to  England,  after  an  exclusion  of 
three  and  a  half  centuries. 

But  the  people  could  no  longer  endure  the 
severity  of  the  Puritan,  who  prohibited  every 
form  of  amusement,  even  to  dancing  around 
the  May  pole  and  "  eating  pie  at  Christmas." 
The  old  sports  of  Elizabeth's  time  were  all 
unholy  to  the  Puritan.  His  spare  time  was 
given  to  preaching,  singing  psalms,  and  talk- 
ing in  sorrowful  tones  about  religion. 

Death    of     Cromwell.     Cromwell    died 
September  3,  1658.    He  was  worn  out  and 

saddened  by  his  toil  for  England,  and  by  its 
A  PURITAN 

GENTLEMAN,  result.  The  day  of  his  death  was  the  anni- 
versary of  his  victories  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  His  last 
prayer  was  for  the  people  of  England.  "  Lord,  pardon  thy 
foolish  people,  forgive  them  their  sins,  and  do  not  forsake 
them ;  love  and  bless  them  and  give  them  rest !  " 

Richard  Cromwell  was  made  Lord  Protector  partly  be- 
cause it  was  thought  that  Oliver  had  desired  his  son  to  succeed 
him;  but  this  is  doubtful.  Eichard  cared  little  for  public 
affairs,  and  offended  the  Puritans  by  his  disregard  for  religion. 
He  once  appointed  a  certain  royalist  to  a  command  in  the 
army,  to  whom  the  objection  was  made  that  he  was  not  a  godly 


16GO]  CROMWELL  239 

man.  Richard  asked  whether  he  was  expected  to  have  none 
but  godly  people  about  him.  "  Why,  here  is  Dick  In- 
goldsby,"  he  said,  "  who  can  neither  preach  nor  pray,  and 
I  would  trust  him  before  any  of  you."  The  army  would 
not  countenance  a  man  like  that,  and  soon  recalled  the  old 
Rump  Parliament  to  Westminster.  The  Rump  and  the  army 
divided  the  power  between  them,  and  Richard  retired  to  pri- 
vate life.  The  Rump  passed  a  resolution  to  conduct  the 
government  without  any  "  single  person,  king,  protector,  or 
House  of  Peers.^v 

General  Monk,  who  had  command  of  the  army  in  Scot- 
land, had  been  a  quiet  observer  of  these  unending  strifes. 
He  decided  to  act  for  the  country,  and  marched  with  his  part 
of  the  army  to  London.  He  began  by  calling  the  entire 
Long  Parliament  together,  including  the  Presbyterians  ex- 
pelled by  Pride  (p.  229).  By  his  advice  the  Parliament  then 
formally  dissolved  itself  after  ordering  a  new  election. 

Charles  was  already  in  communication  with  Monk  and  now 
made  a  written  promise,  called  the  "  Declaration  at  Breda," 
to  pardon  all  offenders,  save  those  who  might  be  excepted  by 
Parliament,  and  to  sign  the  bills  that  Parliament  should  pass 
for  giving  liberty  of  religion  and  paying  the  army.  The 
army  threatened  to  make  trouble.  So  great  was  the  danger 
that.  General  Monk  raised  a  force  of  militia  to  oppose  it. 
But  the  new  Parliament  promptly  accepted  Charles's  offer 
and  voted  that  the  government  should  be  as  in  former  days, 
by  King,  Lords,  and  Commons. 

Charles  Landed  at  Dover  May  25,  1660.  Amidst  the 
cheering  crowds  he  entered  London,  and  passed  through  the 
army  to  Whitehall.  The  people  made  his  reception  eloquent 
with  peals  of  bells,  waving  of  flags,  and  blazing  of  bonfires. 
"  It  must  have  been  my  own  fault,"  said  he,  "  that  I  did  not 
come  before,  for  I  find  no  one  but  declares  he  is  glad  to  see 
me." 

NlVEK  • 


240  THE  STUART  KINGS  AND  CROMWELL  [1G30 

Emigration  to  America  was  greatly  increased  by  the 
troubles  in  England  during  the  thirty  years  preceding  1660. 

Archbishop  Laud's  policy  in  church  affairs  hurried  thou- 
sands of  Puritan  emigrants  to  America,  forming  a  Puritan 
"exodus"  that  continued  till  1640.  John  Winthrop,  a 
wealthy  gentleman  of  Suffolk,  was  one  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  Company  that  secured  a  charter  for  governing  a  colony 
in  New  England.  He  sold  his  estates,  and  led  the  great 
Puritan  migration  of  1630.  He  became  the  first  governor  of 
Massachusetts  and  continued  to  be  reflected  (except  three 
years)  until  his  death  (1649).  Not  only  did  the  Massachu- 
setts colony  become  for  the  time  the  largest  in  America 
(26,000  in  1640),  but  it  furnished  many  of  the  settlers  who 
founded  the  other  New  England  colonies, —  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Hampshire. 

Persecution  under  Cromwell's  rule  was  quite  as  vigorous  as 
under  the  rule  of  the  Stuarts ;  but  this  persecution  was  chief- 
ly against  the  royalists,  or  cavaliers.  As  a  result  of  this 
persecution  the  ancestors  of  the  "  first  families  of  Virginia  " 
emigrated.  Between  1650  and  1670  the  population  of  Vir- 
ginia increased  from  15,000  to  40,000. 

The  Catholics  were  persecuted  alike  by  all  parties,  and  some 
of  them  also  found  a  refuge  in  America.  George  Calvert, 
Lord  Baltimore,  obtained  from  Charles  I.  the  grant  of  some 
land  north  of  the  Potomac  River.  His  son  Cecil  planted  the 
first  Catholic  colony  in  Maryland  in  1634  (map,  p.  303). 

Thus  we  see  how  largely  American  colonization  was  due 
to  religious  persecution  in  England.  It  took  most  of  the 
colonists  a  long  time  to  learn  from  their  own  persecution  to 
give  freedom  to  others.  But  they  finally  learned  that  lesson, 
and  we  may  say  that  our  free  churches  to-day  grew  out  of 
the  religious  persecution  in  England. 

Besides  the  colonies  on  the  North  American  mainland, 
Barbados  and  several  other  islands  of  the  West  Indies  re- 


1660]  COLONIES  241 

ceived  many  English  settlers  during  this  period  of  civil  strife. 
They  became  important  through  the  production  of  sugar. 
Barbados  was  unclaimed  before  England  took  possession  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.  Jamaica  was  taken  from  Spain  by  one 
of  Cromwell's  fleets. 

English  Progress  in  the  Indies,  which  had  begun  in  the 
time  of  Elizabeth,  was  cut  short  by  the  rise  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company  during  the  civil  war.  The  English 
East  India  Company  was  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  a  few, 
while  that  of  Holland  represented  the  whole  nation,  since  any 
merchant  could  join  it.  The  result  was  that  nearly  all  the 
East  India  trade  was  secured  by  the  Dutch  merchants,  whose 
superior  nav)r  captured  or  drove  out  the  English  merchants. 
The  monopoly,  which  fettered  the  progress  of  England  in  the 
Indies,  was  not  done  away  with  till  1833. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  changes  did  Cromwell  make  in  the  government  of  England? 

2.  Compare  his  foreign  policy  with  that  of  James  I. 

3.  How  did  his  rule  affect  American  colonization? 

4.  How  did  Cromwell's  government  fail?     Why? 

5.  What  led  to  the   Restoration? 

6.  What  led  to  Cromwell's  Dutch  wars? 

7.  When  was  the  Long  Parliament  finally  dissolved?     What  were  its 

most   important  acts? 

8.  How  long  did  the  Protectorate  last?     In  what  did  it  succeed;  in 

what  fail?     Why? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  MOXTROSE.      Rolfe,   Tales   from  Scottish  History,  pp.   121-129. 

2.  ROBERT  BLAKE.     Edgar,  Sea  Kings,  pp.  200-26;  Firth,  Cromwell. 

pp.  308-315. 

3.  CROMWELL  IN  IRELAND.   Lawless,  Story  of  Ireland,  Chaps.  XXIX., 

XL. 

4.  NAVAL  WAR  WITH  THE  DUTCH.     F.  M.  Peard,  Scapegrace  Dick, 

5.  THE   BATTLES    OF   DUNBAB  AND   WORCESTER.     Firth,    Cromwell, 

Ch.  XIV. 


IX.     THE  STUART  KINGS  AND  OEANGE. 

A.    THE  RESTORATION. 
Charles  II.,  1660-1685. 

The  Restoration  is  the  name  usually  given  to  that  period 
when  the  third  Stuart  king  began  to  reign ;  although  Charles 
II.  claimed  that  he  had  been  reigning  for  eleven  years,  but 
had  been  kept  out  of  his  kingdom  by  that  "base  mechanic 
fellow/'  Cromwell.  But  the  Restoration  meant  more  than  the 
coming  back  of  the  king.  It  meant  the  coming  back  of  the 
Parliament,  for  we  must  remember  that  the  people  had  not 
been  fairly  represented  in  Cromwell's  time.  It  meant  also 
the  coming  back  of  the  old  church,  with  its  bishops  and  prayer 
book,  and  the  coming  back  of  the  old  amusements  and  social 
life.  The  theaters  were  again  opened,  the  village  holidays 
were  again  celebrated  with  the  old  bear  baiting,  horse  racing, 
cockfighting,  dancing,  and  buffoonery. 

It  was  more  than  a  restoration  of  the  old  customs.  The 
English  people,  so  long  deprived  of  innocent  amusements  by 
the  strict  Puritan  rule,  now  went  to  the  other  extreme.  Lying, 
cheating,  gambling,  and  fighting  were  the  least  of  their 
vices.  These  things  were  part  of  the  life  of  a  gentleman  of 
that  day,  and  it  was  thought  no  disgrace  to  brawl  and  fight 
in  the  street  or  to  become  hopelessly  drunk  and  spend  the 
night  in  the  gutter. 

"  The  King  shall  Enjoy  his  Own  Again,"  was  the  re- 
frain of  an  old  royalist  song;  and  if  ever  king  tried  to  make 
such  a  prediction  good,  Charles  was  that  king.  He  had  no 

242 


1662] 


CHARLES  II. 


243 


sense  of  duty  to  his  people,  and  spent  enormous  sums  of  the 
government  money  on  his  pleasures.     He  had  not  enjoyed 
life  very  much  dur- 
ing his  twelve  years 
of    exile,    and    now 
with  his  courtiers  in- 
dulged  in    all   kinds 
of  excess,   vice,   and 
depravity. 

"  Shaf  tesbury,"  said 
he  one  day  to  a  fa- 
vorite courtier,  "I  be- 
lieve you  are  the 
wickedest  dog  in  my 
dominions." 

"  Yes,  your  Ma- 
jesty," replied  the 
courtier,  "  I  think 
that  among  your 
subjects,  I  probably 
am." 

The  king  was  discreet,  however,  in  spite  of  his  wickedness. 
He  was  determined,  as  he  said,  not  "  to  set  out  on  his  travels 
again."  He  did  not  repeat  the  errors  of  his  father.  When 
he  saw  that  the  people  were  bound  to  have  a  certain  measure, 
he  gave  way  and  let  them  have  it.  The  king  soon  married 
a  Portuguese  princess,  Catherine  of  Braganza,  a  marriage 
which  brought  with  it  Bombay,  the  first  English  possession 
in  India.  Though  he  outwardly  conformed  to  the  English 
Church,  he  was  at  heart  a  Catholic,  and  would  have  been 
glad  to  secure  from  Parliament  fair  treatment  for  English 
Catholics  if  it  had  been  possible. 

The  Parliament  of  1660  was  known  as  the  Convention 
Parliament  to  distinguish  it  from  those  regularly  summoned 


GAY  COURT  LIFE  OF  CHARLES  II. 


244  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1660 

by  the  king.  It  restored  the  lands  that  had  been  taken  from 
the  royalists  and  the  church;  and  it  granted  pardon  for  past 
political  acts  to  all  except  the  judges  and  executioners  who 
had  put  Charles  I.  to  death.  Thirteen  of  these  "  regicides  " 
were  executed,  and  nineteen  imprisoned  for  life.  Nineteen 
others  fled  to  foreign  countries.  The  dead  bodies  of  Cromwell 
and  other  regicides  were  taken  from  their  graves  and  hanged. 
Even  the  body  of  the  heroic  Blake  was  taken  from  its  tomb 
in  the  Abbey.  The  king  held  that  all  who  had  fought  with 
Cromwell  were  guilty  of  high  treason  and  deserved  death, 
and  he  urged  the  Parliament  to  mean  and  disgusting  acts  of 
vengeance. 

The  New  Parliament  which  met  in  1661  was  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  friends  of  the  king,  and  hence  was 
called  the  Cavalier  Parliament.  They  set  to  work  at  once 
to  restore  the  Anglican  Church,  and  to  drive  out  the  Puri- 
tans and  other  dissenters.  All  ministers  who  would  not  use 
the  prayer  book  were  turned  out  of  their  livings.  By  a  later 
act  religious  meetings  of  dissenters  were  prohibited.  Any 
gathering  of  dissenters  for  religious  worship  was  called  a 
"conventicle,"  and  the  royalists  held  that  conventicles  en- 
couraged rebellion.  By  other  laws  dissenters  were  disquali- 
fied from  holding  office  in  a  corporation,  that  is,  a  village  or 
city;  and  non-conformist  ministers  were  forbidden  to  come 
within  five  miles  of  any  corporation  where  they  had  preached 
since  1660. 

John  Bunyan  of  Bedfordshire  was  one  of  the  dissenting 
preachers  imprisoned  under  these  laws.  He  was  a  poor  la- 
borer, a  tinker  by  trade.  He  had  been  very  wicked  in  his 
youth,  but  was  converted  to  the  Puritan  faith  and  became 
a  traveling  preacher.  For  "  devilishly  and  perniciously " 
keeping  away  from  the  established  church,  he  was  put  in 
Bedford  jail,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  While  there 
he  wrote  several  books,  the  most  wonderful  of  which  is  "  The 


-    1664]  CHARLES  II.  245 

Pilgrim's  Progress/'  a  tale  of  a  "  pilgrimage  from  this  world 
to  the  next." 

John  Milton,  who  had  been  Cromwell's  Latin  secretary, 
now  grown  old  and  blind,  wrote  "  Paradise  Lost,"  the  most 
wonderful  poem  in  all  English  literature.  He  is  called  the 
"  Poet  of  Puritanism/'  because  his  poems  express  all  that 
was  best  in  the  Puritan  government  and  religion.  His  arrest 
was  ordered  by  the  Cavalier  Parliament,  but  he  was  finally 
pardoned  and  allowed  to  complete  his  great  work. 

Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  was  the  chief  adviser 
of  the  king.  He  had  been  the  minister  of  Charles  I.,  had 
lived  in  exile  with  the  prince,  and  returned  to  England  with 
him  at  the  Eestoration.  Both  Charles  and  Hyde  were  friends 
of  the  great  French  king  Louis  XIV.,  who  paid  them  well 
for  their  friendship.  Louis  was  desirous  of  obtaining  free- 
dom for  the  English  Catholics,  and  of  keeping  peace  with 
England,  so  that  it  would  not  interfere  with  his  plans  on 
the  continent.  He  was  ambitious  to  conquer  the  Netherlands 
and  add  them  to  France,  and  hoped  in  time  to  get  control  of 
Spain  also  through  the  claims  of  his  wife,  who  was  a  Spanish 
princess. 

Dunkirk  was  sold  to  Louis  by  Charles  II.  and  Clarendon. 
This  town  stood  on  the  northern  border  of  France,  and  was 
the  last  English  possession  on  the  continent.  The  nation 
looked  upon  it  with  pride  as  the  fruit  of  the  last  war  with 
Spain  (p.  235),  and  its  sale  was  regarded  as  an  act  of 
infamy  and  disgrace. 

About  this  time  Charles  declared  in  favor  of  giving  free- 
dom of  worship  to  those  non-conformists  who  did  not  inter- 
fere with  the  peace  of  the  state.  But  Parliament  saw  in  this 
an  attempt  to  give  freedom  to  Catholics,  and  refused  to  sup- 
port the  king  in  it. 

Another  War  with  the  Dutch  broke  out  in  1664,  caused 
by  the  reenactment  of  the  Navigation  Law,  and  by  the 


246  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1664 

rivalry  of  the  two  nations  in  the  Indian  trade.  The  war 
went  on  in  India,  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  America, 
where  an  English  fleet  seized  the  Dutch  colony  of  New 
Netherland,  thereupon  renamed  New  York  in  honor  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  the  king's  brother.  A  series  of  bloody  battles 
took  place  off  the  eastern  coast  of  England  in  which  the 
Dutch  were  finally  victorious. 

The  enormous  amount  of  £2,500,000  had  been  voted 
Charles  to  carry  on  the  war.  But  this  money,  which  should 
have  been  spent  in  keeping  the  navy  in  repair  and  in  sup- 
plying men  and  guns,  was  squandered  by  the  king  on  his 
friends  and  favorites.  The  result  was  that  in  the  third  year 
of  the  war  the  Dutch  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  blockaded 
London  for  several  days,  and  the  English  could  not  muster 
ships  enough  to  drive  them  out.  Peace  was  made  in  1667, 
by  which  England  had  to  give  up  her  claims  to  the  Spice 
Islands  in  the  East  Indies,  but  she  was  allowed  to  retain  the 
colony  of  New  York. 

The  Great  Plague  broke  out  in  London  during  the  Dutch 
war.  The  streets  of  those  days  were  narrow  and  dirty,  and 
without  pavements  or  sewers.  The  houses  were  built  with 
the  upper  stories  projecting  over  the  lower  ones,  thus  shut- 
ting out  the  sunlight  and  air.  The  disease,  once  started, 
spread  with  frightful  rapidity,  and  100,000  people  died  within 
six  months  in  the  city  of  London  alone. 

Every  house  where  the  disease  appeared  was  at  once  marked 
with  a  red  cross  and  the  words,  "  Lord,  have  mercy  on  us," 
written  below.  The  dead  were  brought  out  and  flung  into 
carts  that  were  sent  through  the  streets  every  night,  and  they 
were  buried  without  coffins,  a  hundred  or  more  in  one  com- 
mon grave.  As  many  people  left  the  city  as  were  able,  and 
grass  grew  in  the  deserted  streets. 

The  Great  Fire  (1666).  As  cold  weather  came  on,  the 
plague  slowly  died  out.  But  people  had  scarcely  become  set- 


1667] 


CHARLES  II. 


247 


tied  again  in  their  homes  and  occupations,  when  a  great  fire 
occurred,  which  burned  out  the  whole  heart  of  the  city,  leav- 
ing only  a  mere  fringe 
of  houses  on  the  out- 
skirts. Nearly  all  the 
public  buildings,  in- 
cluding St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  and  eighty- 
nine  churches,  were 
burned.  The  Tower 
and  Westminster  Ab- 
bey were  saved  through 
the  efforts  of  the  king 
by  blowing  up  the 
neighboring  streets 
with  gunpowder. 

For  many  years  a 
monument  built  on 
the  spot  where  the  fire  began,  bore  an  inscription  which 
accused  the  Catholics  of  setting  fire  cc  the  city.  This  unjust 
charge  was  afterwards  erased.  The  poet  Alexander  Pope 
wrote  of  it  the  following : 

"  Where  London's  column   pointing   to  the  skies, 
Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  its  head  and  lies." 

In  spite  of  the  great  loss  of  property,  the  fire  was  a  good 
thing  for  London.  A  new  city  was  laid  out  by  the  great 
architect  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  with  straight,  wide  streets, 
thus  preventing  a  return  of  the  old  disease  and  filth.  He 
also  built  the  new  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  with  its  wonderful 
dome,  after  which  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington 
Avas  modeled.  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral,  and  the  in- 
scription on  the  tomb  reads,  "  If  you  seek  his  monument, 
reader,  look  around  you." 

"  The  Cabal "  was  the  name  given  to  the  king's  chief  ad- 


THE  NEW  ST-  PAUL'S 


248^  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1667 

visers  after  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  was  driven  into  exile  be- 
cause of  his  French  preferences  and  his  failure  in  the  Dutch 
war.  The  word  meant  a  body  of  secret  advisers,  and  besides 
it  happened  that  the  five  letters  of  the  word  were  the  initial 
letters  of  the  names  of  the  men:  Clifford,  Ashley,  Buck- 
ingham, Arlington,  and  Lauderdale. 

A  change  of  policy  toward  France  now  began.  England 
made  an  alliance  with  Holland  and  Sweden,  to  resist  the 
attack  of  Louis  on  the  Netherlands.  But  while  Charles  open- 
ly professed  himself  on  the  side  of  the  Dutch,  he  did  so  only 
to  secure  more  money  from  the  French  king.  At  the  same 
time,  because  he  showed  himself  firm  against  Louis  and  com- 
pelled him  to  make  peace  with  the  Netherlands,  his  Parlia- 
ment made  him  a  large  grant  of  money. 

Secret  Treaty  of  Dover.  The  king  now  made  a  secret 
treaty  with  Louis,  at  Dover,  by  which  he  agreed  to  join  him 
in  another  war  on  the  Dutch,  with  an  army  of  6,000  men, 
and  to  acknowledge  himself  a  Catholic  when  he  saw  fit  to 
do  so.  In  case  his  English  subjects  should  rise  against  him, 
Louis  was  to  assist  him  in  putting  them  down  with  an  army 
of  6,000  men,  thirty  ships,  and  a  large  sum  of  money. 
Charles  was  to  receive  also  during  the  proposed  war  an 
annual  pension  of  £230,000,  for  which  he  agreed  to  give 
his  Catholic  subjects  liberty  of  worship. 

The  New  Dutch  War  was  begun  in  1672.  But  the  Dutch 
successfully  defended  themselves  against  the  English  attacks 
at  sea,  and  when  Louis  invaded  the  Netherlands  the  people 
cut  the  dikes  and  let  the  ocean  flood  the  country  till  the 
French  had  to  retreat. 

The  Declaration  of  Indulgence  (1672)  was  made  by 
Charles  in  order  to  keep  his  agreement  with  Louis.  This  was  a 
proclamation  by  the  king  suspending  all  laws  interfering 
with  any  peaceable  form  of  worship.  But  the  Parliament 
began  now  to  understand  the  treacherous  nature  of  the  king. 


1678]  CHARLES  II. 

and  declared  that  the  Declaration  broke  forty  laws,  and  that 
the  laws  could  not  be  suspended  except  by  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment. When  Charles  saw  that  further  resistance  would 
mean  "  to  resume  his  travels  "  he  yielded. 

The  Test  Act  was  now  passed  by  Parliament,  requiring 
every  man  appointed  to  any  office  in  the  army,  navy,  or  in 
the  government,  to  be  a  communicant  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  to  say  that  he  did  not  believe  that  the  bread 
and  wine  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  became  the  actual 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  This  was  considered  proof  that  he 
was  not  a  Catholic.  This  act  drove  all  honest  Catholics  and 
some  Protestant  dissenters  out  of  office;  among  them  the 
Duke  of  York  ceased  to  be  admiral  of  the  navy,  and  Clifford, 
one  of  the  Cabal,  ceased  to  be  the  king's  treasurer. 

Alliance  with  Holland.  The  secret  treaty  of  Dover 
became  generally  known  about  this  time,  and  made  people 
more  determined  than  ever  to  avoid  any  agreement  with 
Catholic  countries  which  should  threaten  the  absolute  su- 
premacy of  the  English  Church. 

An  important  marriage  was  now  arranged.  As  no  children 
had  been  born  to  the  king  and  queen,  Charles's  brother,  the 
Catholic  Duke  of  York,  would  succeed  to  the  throne.  But 
his  only  children  were  two  daughters,  Mary  and  Anne,  both 
Protestants.  Mary  was  now  married  to  her  cousin  Wil- 
liam III.  of  Orange,  the  Stadtholder,  or  chief  magistrate,  of 
Holland.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Protestants  of  Europe 
against  France.  This  marriage  secured  the  alliance  of  Hol- 
land and  made  it  probable  that  a  Protestant  line  would  suc- 
ceed the  Duke  of  York  on  the  English  throne. 

The  So-called  Popish  Plot.  A  certain  Titus  Gates,  who 
had  been  a  rascal  from  his  youth,  asserted  that  he  knew  of 
a  plot  to  murder  the  king.  He  said  that  after  the  murder  of 
Charles,  James  was  to  be  put  on  the  throne,  and  an  army 
brought  over  from  France  to  suppress  Protestantism  by  force. 


250  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1678 

Oates's  story  seemed  to  be  supported  by  the  fact  that  the 
magistrate  who  examined  him  was  soon  afterwards  murdered. 
The  tale  soon  spread,  and  was  magnified  a  thousand  times 
in  the  telling.  From  being  merely  a  plot  to  kill  the  king, 
which  would  not  have  caused  much  regret,  it  came  to  include 
the  burning  of  London,  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  and  the  massacre  of  thousands  of  innocent  people. 
There  was  really  no  truth  in  Oates's  story ;  but  every  Protes- 
tant of  note  now  considered  himself  marked  for  slaughter, 
and  went  armed. 

Gates,  seeing  his  story  credited,  now  began  to  accuse  large 
numbers  of  innocent  people,  especially  Catholics.  As  many 
as  two  thousand  were  imprisoned,  and  seventeen  put  to  death, 
before  judges  and  juries  came  to  their  senses  and  began  to 
look  closely  into  the  evidence  given  against  the  accused,  to  see 
whether  it  was  not  false. 

A  New  Parliament,  chosen  in  the  midst  of  the  excite- 
ment, was  found  to  contain  only  thirty  members  who  favored 
the  king.  This  Parliament,  led  by  Ashley,  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  passed  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  which  put  an 
end  to  keeping  people  in  prison  without  trial.  Any  man  who 
was  arrested  after  this  might  be  brought  at  once  before  a 
judge,  who  would  examine  into  the  case  and  set  him  free  if 
he  were  not  rightfully  held  for  trial. 

A  law  was  now  proposed  to  exclude  James,  the  Duke  of 
York,  from  the  succession  to  the  throne,  because  it  was  held 
that  no  Catholic  king  could  peacefully  rule  a  Protestant 
people.  The  effect  of  such  a  law  would  have  been  to  make 
James's*  daughter  Mary  the  next  heir  to  the  crown.  To  pre- 
vent the  bill  from  passing,  Charles  dissolved  the  Parliament. 
The  next  two  Parliaments  were  dissolved  for  the  same  reason. 

The  Names  Whig  and  Tory  now  began  to  be  applied  to 
the  two  parties,  the  one  favoring  and  the  other  opposing  the 
Exclusion  Bill.  The  word  "  Whig  "  was  a  Scotch  name  given 


1683J  CHARLES  II.  251 

to  the  Covenanting  rebels  in  the  west  of  Scotland.  The  name 
"Tory"  was  originally  applied  to  Irish  brigands.  Therefore 
when  the  Duke's  friends  called  Shaftesbury  and  his  followers 
Whigs,  it  was  like  saying  that  they  were  on  a  level  with 
Scotch  rebels.  And  when  the  Whigs  called  the  Duke's  friends 
Tories  it  was  like  saying  that  they  were  no  better  than  Irish 
thieves.  These  names,  first  used  in  contempt,  are  still  some- 
times applied  to  the  two  great  political  parties  in  England. 

The  extreme  Whigs,  passing  over  the  rights  of  James's 
daughters,  Mary  and  Anne,  favored  the  succession  of  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  popular  Protestant  noble  who  had  no 
lawful  claim  to  the  crown.  They  had  come  armed  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  many  people  now  feared  that  the  Whigs  were  in- 
tending to  set  up  Monmouth  by  force.  But  the  people  dis- 
liked civil  war  more  than  a  Catholic  king,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year  1681  the  country  had  become  as  strongly  Tory  as  it 
had  been  strongly  Whig  two  years  before.  Leading  Whigs 
were  now  accused  of  treason,  and  Shaftesbury,  to  save  his 
life,  fled  to  Holland,  where  he  died. 

The  Rye  House  Plot  Charles  revoked  the  charters  of 
London  and  of  the  other  large  towns,  and  issued  different 
ones,  giving  power  to  the  Tories.  The  Rye  House  plot  grew 
out  of  this  attack  on  the  liberties  of  the  people.  It  was  a 
desperate  plan  of  some  of  the  Wliigs  to  murder  the  king  and 
the  Duke  of  York  at  a  place  known  as  the  Rye  House.  The 
plot  was  discovered,  and  several  of  those  concerned  in  it  were 
executed. 

The  king  refused  to  call  any  more  Parliaments,  for  fear 
the  WThigs  would  bring  up  more  measures  to  exclude  his 
brother  from  the  throne.  An  association  was  formed  among 
the  WTiigs  to  compel  the  king  in  some  way  to  call  a  Par- 
liament. Just  how  they  intended  to  do  this  is  not  known. 

The  king,  when  he  heard  of  it,  made  it  a  pretense  for 
arresting  some  of  the  leading  WThigs  and  accusing  them  of 


252  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1660 

having  had  a  share  in  the  Eye  House  plot.  Algernon  Sidney 
and  Lord  William  Eussell  were  tried  and  executed,  and  the 
Earl  of  Essex  committed  suicide  in  prison.  Against  Sidney 
there  was  no  proof  of  anything,  except  that  he  believed  that 
an  unworthy  king  could  be  deposed  by  his  people.  Eussell 
was  held  to  believe  that  with  a  Catholic  .on  the  throne  the 
people  would  not  be  secure,  as  no  doubt  he  did.  He  made  an 
eloquent  defense,  but  of  no  avail.  The  king  insisted  on  his 
death,  and  even  the  offer  of  a  hundred  thousand  pounds  did 
not  move  him. 

Scotland  and  Ireland,  like  England,  had  accepted  Charles 
in  1660.  In  Scotland,  during  his  reign,  many  of  the  people 
accepted  the  Church  of  England.  The  strict  "  Covenanters," 
as  the  steadfast  Presbyterians  were  called,  were  cruelly  perse- 
cuted. Lauderdale,  one  of  the  Cabal,  was  first  sent  to  bring 
them  into  subjection.  The  Covenanters  were  routed  at  Both- 
well  Bridge  by  the  Duke  of  Monmouth.  The  Duke  of  York 
was  at  last  sent  to  govern  Scotland.  He  hanged,  shot,  im- 
prisoned, and  tortured  them  into  either  silence  or  outlawry. 

The  Quakers  are  first  heard  of  in  England  in  the  time  of 
Cromwell.  They  did  not  believe  in  any  forms  and  ceremonies 
whatever.  They  were  like  the  Puritans  in  their  desire  to  do 
away  with  the  feasts,  sports,  and  shows  of  the  time,  and  in 
rejecting  the  government  of  the  church  by  the  king  and 
bishops.  They  agreed  with  the  Independents  in  wishing  self- 
government  for  each  congregation.  But  they  were  unlike 
all  other  sects  in  refusing  to  bear  arms,  to  pay  toward  the  sup- 
port of  any  church,  or  to  observe  the  Sabbath  by  formal 
sermons  and  prayers.  They  refused  to  take  oaths  or  to 
observe  any  forms  of  respect  to  superiors.  They  would  not 
take  off  their  hats  in  the  presence  of  the  king  and  of  the 
judges  in  the  courts.  They  believed  in  the  "inner  light," 
meaning  by  this  that  God  tells  every  man,  through  his  con- 
science, what  is  right  and  what  he  ought  to  do. 


1681]  CHARLES  II.  253 

The  Puritans  persecuted  the  Quakers  severely.  When 
Charles  II.  became  king  there  were  4,000  of  them  in  the 
jails.  It  was  common  to  slit  their  noses,  cut  their  ears,  bore 
through  their  tongues  with  a  hot  iron,  and  whip  them  through 
the  streets  at  the  cart's  tail.  Their  numbers  increased  rapidly 
in  spite  of  this  treatment,  and  in  1675  there  were  more  than 
60,000  of  them  in  England.  Charles  was  disposed  to  favor 
them.  He  saw  that  they  were  quiet,  industrious,  and  loyal 
people. 

Several  New  Colonies  were  founded  in  America  during 
this  reign. 

In  1663  the  king  gave  the  vast  region  of  the  Carolinas 
to  a  company  of  his  friends.  The  Carolina  settlers  included 
Presbyterians  harried  out  of  the  western  counties  of  Scot- 
land; French  Huguenots,  or  Protestants,  driven  out  by  the 
tyranny  of  Louis  XIV.;  Quakers,  from  England;  Irish  from 
the  West  Indies,  who  had  been  exiled  by  Cromwell ;  and  other 
settlers  who  had  been  compelled  to  leave  the  older  colonies. 
They  resisted  the  strict  rule  that  the  proprietors  tried  to 
impose  upon  them,  and  in  the  end  the  proprietors  gave  up 
the  struggle. 

We  have  seen  (p.  246)  that  the  Dutch  possessions  in 
America  were  seized  by  the  English  (1664).  This  territory 
was  granted  by  Charles  to  the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  greater 
part  of  it  became  the  colony  of  New  York. 

"New  Jersey  was  granted  by  the  Duke  of  York,  the  same 
year,  to  two  of  his  friends,  who  divided  it  between  them. 
Before  long,  however,  both  parts  were  bought  by  William 
Penn  and  other  Quakers,  who  "  put  the  power  in  the  hands 
of  the  people."  Owing  to  the  excellent  government  and  the 
religious  freedom  given  by  the  Quakers,  the  colony  filled  up 
rapidly. 

Pennsylvania  was  given  to  William  Penn  in  1681,  in  pay- 
ment of  a  debt  owed  by  Charles  II.  The  next  year  Penn 


254  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1631 

came  over  with  three  shiploads  of  colonists,  and  laid  out 
the  regular  streets  of  Philadelphia.  He  also  purchased  from 
the  Duke  of  York  the  "  three  lower  counties  on  the  Delaware/' 
which  became  afterwards  a  separate  colony. 

Death  of  Charles  II.  The  king  died  of  apoplexy  in  1685. 
In  his  last  moments  he  confessed  his  sins  and  received  ex- 
treme unction  as  a  Catholic.  The  queen  sent  to  ask  his  par- 
don, but  Charles  replied  that  it  was  he  who  ought  to  ask 
hers.  He  lingered  some  time  and  apologized  to  the  watchers 
about  him,  saying  that  he  hoped  they  would  excuse  him  for 
taking  such  a  long  time  to  die.  The  people  expressed  great 
sorrow  at  his  death,  and  well  they  might,  for  though  Charles 
was  by  no  means  a  good  king,  he  left  the  kingdom  stronger 
than  it  had  been  since  the  death  of  Elizabeth. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Why  is  this  period  called  the  Restoration?     Compare  it  with  Crom- 

well's time.     Describe  the  reaction  against  Puritanism. 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  the  severe   laws  passed  by  the  Cavalier 

Parliament?     Which  of  them  do  you  think  unwise?     Why? 

3.  How  do  you  account  for  Charles's  dealings  with  the  King  of  France? 

Why  were  they  bad  policy? 

4.  Which  country  do  you  think  was  right  in  the  Dutch  war?     Why? 

5.  What  use  did  the  king  make  of  his  power  in  the  Declaration  of 

Indulgence?     Why  was  this  power  dangerous? 

6.  How  did  the  Covenanters  originate?     Why  were  they  persecuted  by 

the  Stuarts? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  PLAGUE  AND  THE  FIRE.     Church,  Stories  from  English  His- 

tory, pp.  483-503;  Manning,  ('licrrit  (iiul  Violet. 

2.  JOHN  BUNYAN.     Green,  Short  History   (see  index)  ;  Bunyan,  The 

Pilgrim's    Progress;    Wright,    Stories    of    English    Literature, 
Vol.  II.,  chap.  IV. 

3.  RETURN  OF  CHARLES  II.     Scott,  Woodstock. 

4.  THE  SEIZURE  OF  Xi:\v  AMSTERDAM.     Gardiner,  Student's  History 

of  England,  p.  589;    Bennett,  Barnaby  Lee. 

5.  THE  SO-CALLED  POPISH  PLOT.     Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  His- 

tory, VIII.,  pp.  10-24;  Macaulay,  History  of  England,  I.,  pp. 
217  et  seq. 


1685]  JAMES  II.  255 

B.     THE  EEVOLUTION  OF  1688. 

James  II.,  1685-1688. 

The  Duke  of  York,  who  became  James  II.  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Charles  II.,  had  all  the  belief  of  his  father  and 
grandfather  in  the  divine  right  of  kings.  The  chief  aim  of 
his  reign  was  to  secure  religious  liberty  for  Catholics,  and  to 
rule  independently  of  Parliament.  His  words  and  his  actions 
had  as  little  connection  as  those  of  Charles  I.  In  his  first 
speech  to  his  council,  he  declared  that  he  would  rule  accord- 
ing to  the  English  law  and  support  the  English  Church ;  but 
the  first  act  of  his  reign  was  to  collect  a  customs  duty  not 
voted  by  Parliament,  thus  breaking  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
kingdom,  and  before  the  crown  was  placed  upon  his  head  he 
had  the  service  of  the  Catholic  Church  celebrated  at  Whitehall, 
for  the  first  time  in  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years. 

Titus  Gates,  who  had  sworn  away  the  lives  of  so  many 
innocent  men,  now  received  his  deserts.  He  was  taken  through 
the  streets  at  the  tail  of  a  cart,  and  flogged  with  knotted 
cords  till  the  "blood  flowed  in  rivulets/'  He  was  then  im- 
prisoned for  life,  and  was  made  to  stand  in  the  pillory  five 
times  a  year. 

The  Persecution  of  the  Covenanters  was  kept  up  with 
vigor  in  western  Scotland,  under  the  direction  of  Claver- 
house.  Those  who  refused  to  forsake  the  Covenant  were  shot, 
hanged,  or  drowned.  One  girl  of  eighteen,  Margaret  Wilson, 
was  fastened  to  a  stake  at  low  water  in  the  Solway  Firth,  to  be 
drowned  by  the  rising  tide.  As  the  water  rose  to  her  head, 
she  was  taken  out  and  asked  if  she  would  give  up  the  Cove- 
nant and  attend  the  Episcopal  Church.  "  Never,"  she  re- 
plied. "  I  am  Christ's,  let  me  go !  "  She  was  put  back,  and 
the  waves  closed  over  her. 

The  Parliament  called  in  1685  was  strongly  Tory,  and 
voted  the  king  the  usual  revenues  for  life.  But  a  resolution 

NlVEH  ifi. 


256 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1685 


passed  by  it  to  sustain  the  Church  of  England,  and  to 
enforce  the  laws  against  non-conformists,  angered  James  and 
seemed  to  indicate  a  coming  storm. 

The  Argyle  and  Monmouth  Rebellion  grew  out  of  the 
fight  between  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories  about  the  Exclusion 
Bill.  The  Earl  of  Argyle  was  the  leader  of  the  clan  of  the 
Campbells,  who  upheld  the  Covenant.  He  was  living  in  exile 
in  Holland  when  James  became  king.  He  now  came  to 


MONMOUTH  AND  KING  JAMES. 

Scotland  with  a  small  army,  hoping  that  the  Scotch  would 
join  him  in  seizing  the  government.  He  then  intended  to 
join  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in  England,  and  dethrone  James. 
But  the  Scotch  did  not  rise,  and  Argyle  was  captured  and 
executed  by  the  royal  troops. 

In  the  mean  time  Monmouth  had  landed  at  Lyme  Eegis 
on  the  Dorsetshire  coast  and  was  soon  joined  by  five  or  six 
thousand  of  the  country  people.  He  boldly  claimed  the  title 


1685]  JAMES  II.  257 

of  king;  but  the  nobility  and  gentlemen  kept  away  from 
him.  At  Sedgemoor  he  attacked  the  royal  army  and  was 
badly  defeated.  Many  of  his  men  were  caught  and  hanged 
at  once,  and  he  himself  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  taken 
into  the  presence  of  James,  and  pleaded  hard  for  mercy.  But 
it  appears  that  the  king  had  admitted  him  only  to  induce  him 
to  disclose  the  names  of  others  who  had  promised  him  assist- 
ance. When  he  found  that  Monmouth  had  nothing  of  im- 
portance to  tell,  he  ordered  him  to  execution. 

The  "  Bloody  Assizes  "  of  Jeffreys  followed  immediately 
upon  this  rebellion.  Jeffreys  was  one  of  the  king's  judges, 
noted  for  wickedness  and  brutality.  He  had  helped  Charles 
II.  take  away  the  charters  of  the  cities,  and  having  no  prin- 
ciples or  religion  of  his  own  to  support,  was  a  servile  creature 
of  the  king.  He  was  now  sent  into  the  western  counties  to 
visit  the  "assize,"  or  court,  towns,  and  try  the  persons  ac- 
cused of  aiding  Monmouth. 

The  case  of  Alice  Lisle  shows  the  fearful  brutality  and 
cruelty  of  these  trials.  This  lady,  seventy  years  of  age,  was 
accused  of  concealing  in  her  house  two  fugitives  from  Mon- 
mouth's  army.  It  was  not  proved  that  she  knew  them  to  be 
rebels,  nor  that  they  were  rebels.  Three  times  the  jury  re- 
fused to  bring  in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  but  they  were  finally 
bullied  by  Jeffreys  into  submission,  and  Alice  Lisle  was  put 
to  death. 

Three  hundred  and  twenty  persons  were  executed,  and  their 
mutilated  and  dismembered  bodies  were  fixed  up  along  the 
highways  and  over  the  doors  of  town  halls  and  churches,  in 
the  different  villages  where  trials  were  held.  Eight  hundred 
and  forty-one  were  sold  into  slavery  under  the  broiling  sun 
of  the  English  West  Indian  possessions,  there  to  labor  until 
they  died.  When  Jeffreys  returned  after  his  bloody  work, 
James  congratulated  him  on  his  great  success  and  made  him 
chancellor. 


258  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1685 

The  King  and  Parliament  had  agreed  in  putting  down 
rebellion  and  in  punishing  the  rebels.  But  James  now- 
thought  himself  strong  enough  to  carry  out  his  plans  in  regard 
to  the  Catholics.  As  he  increased  the  army,  he  appointed 
officers  belonging  to  that  faith,  and  excused  them  from  the 
requirements  of  the  Test  Act.  The  House  of  Commons  be- 
came alarmed.  King  Louis  XIV.  of  France  had  just  revoked 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  a  law  which  protected  French  Prot- 
estants, and  followed  it  up  with  a  cruel  persecution,  which 
drove  thousands  into  Germany,  America,  England,  and  Hol- 
land. If  James  were  allowed  to  disobey  the  Test  Act,  it  was 
thought,  he  might  choose  Catholics  for  all  the  offices,  and 
finally  treat  Protestants  as  badly  as  the  French  king,  whom 
he  regarded  as  a  model.  James  told  the  Parliament  that  he 
wanted  money  for  a  standing  army,  and  would  not  change 
his  appointments.  The  House  of  Commons  passed  a  petition 
that  he  obey  the  Test  Act,  and  to  show  that  they  did  not 
approve  his  conduct,  voted  only  half  the  money  he  asked. 

The  Dispensing  Power  was  now  claimed  by  James  to  sup- 
port his  actions.  This  was  really  the  power  to  break  the  laws 
whenever  he  saw  fit.  When  the  judges  declared  that  the 
king  had  no  such  power,  he  turned  them  out  and  appointed 
others,  who  decided  that  he  did  have  it.  This  decision  of 
course  made  him  absolute,  for  if  the  king  could  set  aside 
the  laws  as  he  pleased,  there  was  no  way  to  check  him  but 
by  :force  of  arms. 

The  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was  next  issued  by  the 
king,  announcing  that  all  people,  Catholics  and  Protestant 
dissenters  included,  were  free  to  worship  as  they  pleased,  and 
to  hold  office.  Before  publishing  his  Declaration,  he  tried 
to  have  the  Test  Act  abolished  legally  by-  Parliament.  But 
\rhen  he  found,  by  talking  with  one  member  after  another, 
that  they  would  not  do  it,  he  dissolved  Parliament.  He 
thought  that  the  dissenters  would  be  so  grateful  to  him  that 


1688]  JAMES  IL  259 

they  would  support  him  against  the  established  church  But 
the  most  of  them  feared  that  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence 
was  only  a  trick  to  put  Catholics  in  power,  and  declined  to 
support  the  king  in  a  measure  that  gave  freedom  of  worship 
to  themselves. 

The  Church  of  England  and  the  Colleges  were  now 
openly  attacked  by  the  king.  He  created  an  Ecclesiastical 
Commission  court,  suspended  clergymen  who  defended  Prot- 
estant doctrines,  but  permitted  clergymen  who  had  become 
Catholics  to  retain  their  places.  The  universities  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  were  under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  only  members  of  that  church  could  be  teachers  in 
the  colleges  there.  James  insisted  on  the  election  of  the 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  who  was  a  Catholic  at  heart,  to  the  presi- 
dency of  one  of  the  Oxford  colleges. 

A  Second  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was  announced  in 
April,  1688,  and  all  the  ministers  were  commanded  to  read  it 
in  their  churches  on  two  successive  Sundays.  In  London 
only  four  clergymen  obeyed,  and  their  congregations  got  up 
and  left  the  house  as  soon  as  the  reading  began.  Seven 
bishops  met  and  drew  up  a  petition  to  the  king,  asking  him 
not  to  enforce  his  order.  The  king  declared  that  the  petition 
was  rank  rebellion,  and  the  bishops  were  arrested  and  con- 
fined in  the  Tower.  He  brought  a  charge  of  seditious  libel 
against  them;  that  is,  he  accused  them  of  publishing  false 
statements  which  tended  to  stir  up  rebellion  against  the  king. 

The  Trial  of  the  Bishops  took  place  on  June  29.  The 
judges  had  been  chosen  by  the  king  with  the  object  of  secur- 
ing a  conviction.  But  would  the  jury  bring  in  a  verdict  of 
guilty? 

At  first  three  jurymen  declared  for  the  king,  but  before 
morning  all  had  agreed  on  a  verdict  of  not  guilty.  The 
crowds  waiting  in  Westminster  set  up  a  shout,  and  the  crowd 
in  the  street  echoed  it.  James  was  that  morning  to  review 


260  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1688 

the  army  assembled  near  London.  As  he  approached  he 
heard  a  tremendous  cheering  and  shouting. 

"  What  is  that  noise  ?  "  he  asked. 

"  It  is  nothing,"  answered  Lord  Feversham,  "  only  the 
soldiers  shouting  for  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops." 

"  Do  you  call  that  nothing  ?  "  said  he.  "  So  much  the 
worse  for  them/' 

But  it  was  the  worse  for  James.  He  had  succeeded  in 
losing  the  friendship  of  nine  tenths  of  his  people,  and  even 
of  his  own  children  and  relatives.  They  waited  patiently, 
however,  thinking  that  it  could  not  be  many  years  before 
his  daughter  Mary  would  succeed  him. 

James's  first  wife  having  died,  he  had  married  again,  and 
two  days  after  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops  it  was  announced 
that  a  son  was  born  to  him.  This  boy  would  of  course  be 
brought  up  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and  when  he  grew  up  he 
would  probably  do  exactly  as  his  father  had  done.  Besides, 
a  story  was  noised  abroad  that  the  child  was  not  the  king's 
at  all,  but  a  baby  that  had  been  procured  somewhere  and 
smuggled  into  the  palace. 

The  English  Revolution.  William  of  Orange  (p.  249), 
the  nephew  and  son-in-law  of  James,  was  now  invited  by  many 
English  nobles  to  become  king,  and  to  save  the  liberties  and 
rights  of  the  people.  There  would  be  no  trouble  about  this, 
they  said,  for  the  whole  nation  was  ready  to  give  him  a  hearty 
welcome.  So  William  collected  a  fleet  and  army  in  Holland, 
and  on  the  5th  of  November  he  landed  on  the  English  coast. 

James  started  with  his  army  to  attack  the  invaders;  but 
his  soldiers  began  to  desert  him ;  the  bishops  he  had  appointed 
would  not  help  him ;  and  when  he  reached  his  house  he  found 
that  his  daughter  Anne  and  her  husband  had  fled.  "  Now, 
God  help  me !  "  cried  the  king.  "  My  own  children  have  for- 
saken me."  Deserted  by  everybody,  he  tried  to  escape  to 
France,  but  was  caught  by  some  fishermen  and  brought  back. 


1689]  JAMES  II.  261 

William  really  wanted  him  to  run  away.  James  did  not 
know  this,  and  requested  to  be  allowed  to  go  to  Eochester. 
Permission  was  gladly  granted.  On  the  18th  of  December 
he  rose  in  the  middle  of  the  night  and  rode  to  the  coast,  where 
he  found  a  ship  bound  for  France.  He  finally  reached  the 
French  court,  where  the  great  Louis  received  him  with  the 
highest  respect  and  kindness.  He  never  again  set  foot  on 
the  soil  of  England.  With  the  general  approval  of  the 
nation,  William  called  for  an  election  and  a  meeting  of 
Parliament. 

The  Throne  was  Declared  Vacant  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  account  of  the  misgovernment  and  flight  of  the 
king.  To  this  the  Lords  agreed,  and  William  and  Mary 
were  elected  joint  sovereigns  of  England.  The  idea  that  the 
king  received  his  power  directly  from  God,  and  could  there- 
fore defy  the  will  of  the  people,  was  overthrown  with  James ; 
and  the  other  notion,  that  the  people  are  the  source  of  power, 
was  established  by  the  election  of  William  and  Mary. 

The  American  Colonies  had  been  left  largely  to  them- 
selves until  the  time  of  James  II.  As  Edmund  Burke  said  of 
them,  "they  flourished  through  the  neglect  of  England." 
But  James  was  jealous  of  their  growth  and  prosperity,  and 
considered  them  a  nursery  for  rebels.  He  sent  Sir  Edmund 
Andros  over  in  1686  to  take  away  the  charters  of  the  New 
England  colonies  and  unite  them  under  one  government. 
Andros  was  ordered  also  to  establish  the  Episcopal  Church,  to 
suspend  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  to  levy  taxes  without 
asking  the  people,  to  take  charge  of  the  printing  presses,  to 
abolish  all  the  colonial  legislatures,  and  to  take  possession  of 
all  unoccupied  lands  for  himself  and  his  friends.  But  James 
did  not  rule  long  enough  to  provoke  a  revolution  in  the 
colonies.  The  revolution  that  he  provoked  at  home  relieved 
them  of  Andros,  and  under  William,  and  Mary  they  got  their 
liberties  back  without  fighting. 


262  ORANGE  [1689 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  James  lose  the  confidence  of  his  people? 

2.  Explain  the  attempts  made  to  dethrone  him.     How  did  they  result? 

3.  What   was    the    dispensing   power?     On   what   ground   did   James 

claim  it? 

4.  How  did  the  Revolution  of  1688  affect  the  government  of  England? 

The  church? 

5.  Why  was  the  case  of  the  seven  bishops  important? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  JUDGE  JEFFREYS.     Macaulay,  History  of  England,  I.,  pp.  590-611 ; 

Yonge,  Cameos  from  English,  History,  VIII. 

2.  THE  SEVEN  BISHOPS.     Creighton,  Stories   from  English   History, 

Ch.  XLIII. ;  Macaulay,  History  of  England,  I}.,  pp.  317-357 ; 
Green,  Short  History,  p.  672. 

3.  ALICE  LISLE.     Tonge,    Cameos   from   English   History,   VIII.,  pp. 

82-83 ;  Macaulay,  History  of  England,  I.,  pp.  591-596. 

4.  THE  COVENANTERS.     Green,  Short  History,  531-532,  551,  621,  632 ; 

Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  History,  VII.,  VIII. 

5.  MONMOUTH'S    REBELLION.     Macaulay,    History    of    England,    I., 

541-579 ;  Besant,  For  Faith  and  Freedom. 


C.     THE  NEW  ORDER  OF  THINGS. 
William  III.,  1689-1702,  and  Mary  II.,  1689-1694. 

A  Declaration  of  the  Rights  and  liberties  of  the  people 
was  drawn  up  by  the  Parliament,  and  agreed  to  by  William 
and  Mary  before  they  were  crowned.  James  had  broken  down 
many  of  the  old  liberties,  and  his  judges  had  said  that  he 
had  a  right  to  do  so.  Then,  a  revolution  had  taken  place; 
that  is,  one  royal  house  had  been  driven  out,  and  a  new  one 
set  up.  It  was  necessary  that  the  new  rulers  should  agree 
to  abide  by  the  old  laws  and  customs  of  England. 

The  new  Declaration  provided  that  the  king  should  never 
set  aside  the  laws  without  the  consent  of  Parliament;  that  a 
standing  army  should  not  be  kept ;  that  the  election  of  mem- 
bers of  Parliament  should  be  free  from  interference,  and 
that  Parliament  should  be  frequently  assembled;  that  "Wil- 


1689] 


WILLIAM  III. 


263 


liam  and  Mary  should  reign  as  joint  sovereigns,  with  the 
practical  care  of  the  government  in  the  hands  of  William; 
that  if  either  William  or  Mary  died  the  other  should  con- 
tinue to  reign ;  that  if  they  left  no  children,  the  crown  should 
descend  to  Anne,  the  sister  of  Mary,  and  to  her  heirs;  and 


CORONATION  OF  WILLIAM  AND  MARY. 

that  no  Eoman  Catholic,  or  person  marrying  a  Eoman  Cath- 
olic, should  be  capable  of  receiving  the  crown  of  England. 
These  provisions  were  afterwards  made  into  the  "Bill  of 
Eights."  This  bill  is  the  third  great  document  that  goes  to 
make  up  the  English  constitution.  Magna.  Charta,  the  Pe- 
tition of  Eight,  and  the  Bill  of  Eights  form  what  Lord 


a  64  ORANGE  [1689 

Chatham  called  the  "Bible  of  the  English  Constitution." 
And  according  to  these  three  charters  England  is  now  gov- 
erned. 

A  Toleration  Act  was  passed  which  allowed  all  sects, 
except  Catholics  and  Unitarians,  to  worship  in  their  own 
churches.  The  oath  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  (p.  169) 
was  required  of  all  clergy  holding  places  in  the  Established 
Church.  There  were  many  among  them  who  held  that  James 
was  still  king.  Accordingly,  about  four  hundred  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary.  For  a 
long  time  afterwards  they  were  known  as  "non-jurors." 

Those  among  the  laymen  who  still  held  to  James  were 
known  as  Jacobites,  a  word  derived  from  Jacobus,  the  Latin 
word  for  James.  There  were  many  who  disliked  the  grave 
and  simple  manners  of  the  new  king,  who  was  also  a  little 
too  fond  of  Dutchmen  to  please  many.  But  William  tried 
to  rule  both  Holland  and  England  fairly;  he  would  not  take 
the  side  of  any  party,  but  did  his  best  to  create  good  feeling 
and  patriotic  harmony  among  all  classes. 

The  Mutiny  Act  was  a  law  which  gave  the  king  power 
to  enforce  discipline  in  the  army  for  only  six  months  or 
one  year  at  a  time.  The  act  has  been  renewed  from  year 
to  year  ever  since ;  but  if  it  were  not  renewed,  a  soldier  could 
desert  or  disobey  the  king's  officers  without  much  danger  of 
punishment. 

A  few  years  later  Parliament  adopted  the  plan  of  voting 
the  king  a  revenue  for  only  one  year  at  a  time.  This,  with 
the  plan  of  the  Mutiny  Acts,  has  compelled  the  king  to  call 
the  Parliament  together  often,  and  so  enabled  them  to  keep 
a  close  oversight  of  his  conduct  and  of  the  condition  of  the 
country.  In  fact,  it  has  made  Parliament  supreme. 

The  War  of  the  Palatinate.  Before  William  was  fairly 
settled  in  his  new  kingdom,  the  French  king  had  begun  war 
against  him.  The  Protestants  of  Europe,  headed  by  William, 


1G89]  WILLIAM  III.  265 

had  formed  an  alliance  against  France  after  the  repeal  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  Louis  began  war  by  plunder- 
ing the  Palatinate  and  murdering  thousands  of  Protestants 
there.  He  also  sent  an  army  to  Ireland  to  help  the  deposed 
King  James  in  regaining  his  throne.  There  was  also  some 
fighting  in  Scotland. 

Killiecrankie.  In  Scotland  most  of  the  people  favored 
William  and  Mary,  and  the  Scottish  Parliament  elected  them 
to  the  throne  in  place  of  James.  The  Scotch  Highlanders 
were  the  chief  adherents  of  the  deposed  king.  Claverhouse, 
now  Viscount  Dundee,  who  had  been  a  hunter  of  Covenanters 


ENGLISH  MUSKET. 


in  the  former  reign,  now  gathered  a  large  army  of  the  High- 
land clans  in  support  of  James.  William's  army,  under 
General  Mackay,  met  them  in  the  steep  mountain  pass  of 
Killiecrankie.  The  Scotch  were  stationed  at  the  top  of  the 
hill.  As  the  English  troops  struggled  up  to  attack  them  the 
Highlanders  fired  one  volley,  and  then,  throwing  down  their 
muskets,  rushed  upon  the  English  with  their  broadswords. 
The  musket  in  use  among  the  English  at  that  time  was 
changed  into  a  pike  by  fixing  a  dagger  in  the  end  of  the 
barrel.  It  was  an  awkward  contrivance,  and  before  the  dag- 
ger could  be  adjusted  the  Scotch  were  upon  them  with  wild 
yells  and  flashing  weapons.  Mackay  was  defeated,  but  drew 
off  his  army  without  severe  loss.  Dundee  was  killed  in  this 
battle,  and  the  clans,  having  no  capable  leader,  soon  returned 
to  their  homes. 

Afterwards  the  Highland  chiefs  were  offered  pardon  and 
a  sum  of  money  if  they  would  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  King  William,  and  agree  to  live  peaceably  in  the  future. 


266  ORANGE  [1692 

As  James  had  by  this  time  been  defeated  and  driven  out  of 
Ireland,  they  were  willing  to  do  this;  but  to.  show  their  in- 
dependence they  put  off  taking  the  oath  as  long  as  possible. 

Maclan  of  Glencoe  was  an  old  man,  chief  of  the  clan 
of  MacDonald.  A  proclamation  had  been  issued  that  all  who 
did  not  appear  before  a  certain  day  would  be  regarded  as 
public  enemies.  Maclan  was  by  mistake  a  few  days  late. 
He  might  still  have  been  pardoned,  had  not  the  affairs  of 
Scotland  been  in  the  hands  of  men  who  were  his  enemies. 
They  sent  such  a  report  of  the  case  to  William  that  he  con- 
sented to  the  order  for  rooting  out  "that  set  of  thieves  at 
Glencoe." 

Glencoe  was  a  picturesque  little  valley  in  the  western 
Highlands.  Here  lived  the  clan  of  MacDonald,  numbering 
perhaps  five  hundred  people.  A  company  of  soldiers  was  sent 
among  them  to  ask  for  quarters,  pretending  that  there  was 
not  room  for  them  at  their  fort  near  by.  For  twelve  days 
they  lived  with  the  clan,  having  food,  drink,  and  shelter  with- 
out payment.  Their  commander,  whose  niece  was  married  to 
the  chiefs  son,  lived  in  the  most  friendly  way  with  the  family 
of  Maclan,  though  at  the  time  he  had  in  his  pocket  a  letter 
which  ordered  him  "to  cut  off  the  clan,  root  and  branch." 
At  five  o'clock  one  morning,  while  it  was  yet  dark,  the  sol- 
diers surrounded  the  cabins  in  which  they  had  feasted  and 
made  merry  the  night  before.  The  unfortunate  people  were 
dragged  out  and  murdered;  many  who  tried  to  escape  were 
shot  down.  It  had  been  planned  to  have  a  strong  force  come 
from  the  fort  and  cut  off  the  fugitives,  but  it  arrived  too 
late,  and  three  fourths  of  the  clan  escaped  in  the  darkness. 
But  their  huts  were  burned  and  their  cattle  driven  off.  It  was 
in  the  middle  of  winter  and  many  of  the  fugitives  were  starved 
and  frozen.  Some  returned  to  their  ruined  village  and  again 
built  up  homes  in  the  little  valley.  They  told  the  story  of 
Glencoe  to  their  children,  and  it  has  come  down  to  us  as  the 


1680]  WILLIAM    III.  267 

darkest  blot  on  the  reign  of  William,  and  as  the  most  terrible 
tale  in  the  tribal  wars  of  Scotland. 

Richard  Talbot,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  had  been  sent  by 
James  II.  to  rule  Ireland.  He  had  been  ordered  to  recruit 
a  Catholic  army  and  be  ready  to  assist  the  king.  So  now, 
in  Ireland,  the  supporters  of  James  were  stronger  than  their 
opponents.  Those  who  favored  William  were  called  "  Orange- 
men,'' a  name  which  still  clings  to  the  Irish  Protestants. 

James  landed  in  Ireland  with  some  French  troops  in  the 
spring  of  1689.  He  found  the  Irish  divided  into  two  parties, 
one  of  which,  led  by  Tyrconnel,  hoped  to  make  Ireland  inde- 
pendent. An  Irish  Parliament  was  summoned,  and  the  Act 
of  Settlement  passed  in  1661  was  repealed.  By  this  act 
much  property  was  taken  from  the  Protestants  and  restored 
to  Catholics.  A  great  act  of  attainder  was  passed  against 
two  thousand  Englishmen.  All  of  these  that  did  not  sur- 
render themselves  to  James  at  Dublin  within  a  certain  length 
of  time  were  to  be  executed  without  a  trial ;  provided,  of 
course,  James  could  catch  them,  which  at  one  time  seemed 
more  than  possible. 

The  Protestant  refugees  had  gathered  in  Londonderry  and 
another  town  in  Ulster.  The  forces  of  James  besieged  Lon- 
donderry and  cut  off  all  supplies  of  food.  For  one  hundred 
and  five  days  the  siege  lasted.  All  wholesome  food  was  gone. 
Horses,  rats,  and  dogs  were  eaten.  There  seemed  to  be  noth- 
ing to  do  but  surrender  or  starve.  The  town  was  approached 
from  the  sea  only  by  a  river,  which  the  Irish  had  blocked  with 
a  heavy  raft.  For  days  and  days  the  ships  sent  by  William 
lay  outside  the  raft,  not  daring  to  break  it.  At  last  they 
received  positive  orders  to  relieve  the  town.  One  ship  was 
headed  straight  toward  the  raft  and  broke  it;  the  ship  was 
wrecked,  but  the  other  vessels  sailed  through  and  brought 
food  to  the  starving  inhabitants. 

The  Quarrels  of  Parties  in  Parliament  had  prevented 


268  ORANGE  [1690 

William  from  taking  prompt  action  against  James;  and  it 
was  not  until  he  threatened  to  resign  the  throne  and  return 
to  Holland  that  the  wrangling  Whigs  and  Tories  came  to 
their  senses.  A  new  Parliament  was  called,  and  provision 
was  made  for  war. 

The  Battle  of  the  Boyne  (1690).  William  led  an  army 
of  30,000  men  into  Ireland.  James  had  drawn  up  his  army 
on  rising  ground  south  of  the  river  Boyne  (map,  p.  232), 
across  which  the  English  had  to  advance  to  attack  him.  The 
two  armies  were  about  evenly  matched.  The  river  was  skill- 
fully crossed  and  the  battle  bravely  won  by  William's  army. 
William  crossed  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  receiving  a  wound 
in  the  arm;  but  the  Irish  were  disgusted  at  the  cowardly 
conduct  of  James,  who  ran  away  before  the  battle  began. 
The  Irish  army  was  badly  defeated,  but  the  French  covered 
their  retreat  and  only  1,500  men  were  lost.  The  war  was 
continued  until  the  next  year,  when  the  Irish  were  finally 
routed  with  terrible  loss  at  Aghrim,  1,000  men  being  mas- 
sacred in  the  retreat.  The  rest  took  refuge  in  Limerick, 
where  they  were  forced  to  surrender.  All  who  wished  were 
allowed  to  retire  to  France,  and  about  10,000  officers  and 
men  did  so.  Protestant  ascendancy  was  now  established  in 
Ireland,  and  the  cruel  penal  code  began  to  be  built  up. 

Two  Naval  Battles  were  fought  during  this  struggle  in 
Ireland.  The  first  one  at  Beachy  Head  was  lost  through  the 
treacherous  retreat  of  the  English  admiral  Torrington,  a 
Jacobite.  Two  years  later  occurred  the  battle  of  La  Hogue, 
off  the  northern  coast  of  France.  Here  a  fleet  of  forty-four 
French  ships  met  a  combined  Dutch  and  English  fleet  of 
ninety.  The  French  did  not  think  that  the  English  would 
fight,  as  Admiral  Russell  was  known  to  sympathize  with 
King  James.  But  James's  conduct  in  Ireland,  and  the 
threatened  invasion  of  England  by  France,  had  caused  his 
best  friends  to  abandon  him.  The  English  did  fight, 


1695]  WILLIAM  III.  269 

and  out  of  the  French  fleet  only  twelve  ships  escaped;  these 
were  pursued  under  the  very  walls  of  the  fort  and  burned 
before  the  eyes  of  James  himself,  who  saw  in  their  destruc- 
tion the  end  of  his  hope  for  a  successful  invasion  of  England. 
He  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  France,  dying  there  shortly 
before  the  close  of  William's  reign. 

The  French  defeat  on  the  sea,  however,  was  offset  by 
several  victories  which  Louis  won  over  the  Protestant  allies 
on  the  continent.  For  years  it  had  been  the  boast  of  the 
French  that  they  had  not  lost  a  battle  or  a  city.  But  in 
1695  William  took  from  the  French  the  city  of  Namur  with 
its  garrison  of  12,000,  though  an  army  of  80,000  Frenchmen 
came  to  raise  the  siege. 

Queen  Mary  Died  of  smallpox  in  1694.  She  was  of  a 
gentle  nature  and  was  greatly  beloved  by  all.  "I  was  the 
happiest  man  on  earth,"  said  William,  "  and  now  I  am  the 
most  miserable."  The  Greenwich  Hospital,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Thames,  is  her  memorial.  This  structure  had  been  begun 
by  Charles  II.  as  a  palace,  but  left  unfinished.  After  the 
naval  battles  with  France,  Mary  wished  to  complete  the 
building  as  a  hospital  for  wounded  sailors.  This  was  done 
after  her  death,  and  it  still  stands  the  most  fitting  monument 
of  a  queen  who  loved  to  comfort  the  unfortunate. 

The  Freedom  of  the  Press  was  established  during  the 
period  of  this  French  war.  Before  that,  Parliament  had 
from  time  to  time  forbidden  the  printing  of  any  book  or 
newspaper  in  England  without  a  royal  license;  but  now 
Parliament  refused  to  renew  the  licensing  act,  so  men  became 
free  to  print  as  well  as  speak  their  thoughts  freely  —  a  priv- 
ilege which  continues  to  be  the  safeguard  of  liberty  and  a 
check  upon  wrongdoing. 

The  Bank  of  England.  The  wars  led  to  a  large  debt 
to  the  money  lenders  and  bankers.  Those  who  lent  money 
to  the  government  were  now  formed  into  a  banking  company. 


270 


ORANGE 


[1694 


THE   PRESENT  BANK  OF  ENGT.AND. 


which  grew  into  the   Bank  of   England,  the  most  famous 
financial  institution  in  the  world. 

The  Money  was  Recoined  during  this  reign.  Much  of 
it  was  worn  out  and  mutilated  by  clipping.  The  coins  had 

been  made  with 
smooth  edges,  so  that 
with  a  sharp  knife 
one  could  cut  a  strip 
of  metal  from  a  coin 
and  it  would  not  be 
noticed.  But  the  new 
coins  were  made  with 
milled  edges,  in  order 
that  no  metal  could 
be  cut  off  without  showing.  The  public  sent  in  their  old 
money  to  the  government,  and  received  in  exchange  fresh 
new  coins  of  full  weight. 

A  Plot  to  Assassinate  the  King  was  discovered  in  1696. 
Forty  of  the  Jacobites  were  concerned  in  it.  If  it  succeeded 
a  French  army  was  to  land  in  England  and  attempt  to 
restore  King  James.  The  conspirators  had  planned  to  con- 
ceal themselves  along  a  road  by  which  William  would  return 
from  a  hunt.  At  a  signal  they  were  to  spring  out  and  shoot 
him,  before  any  one  could  help  him.  The  detection  of  this 
plot  alarmed  the  English,  and  they  took  careful  measures  to 
protect  the  king.  Some  of  the  conspirators  were  taken  and 
executed. 

The  Peace  of  Ryswick,  made  with  Louis  in  1697,  con- 
cluded the  French  war.  William  was  acknowledged  to  be 
the  rightful  King  of  England,  and  the  cause  of  James  was 
given  up.  The  new  Cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  had  just  been 
completed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  William  at  the  head 
of  a  great  triumphal  procession  entered  the  church,  where  a 
solemn  thanksgiving  was  rendered  for  the  return  of  peace. 


1701]  WILLIAM  III.  271 

The  army  was  now  partly  disbanded,  and  the  Dutch  guards, 
who  had  served  faithfully,  were,  much  against  the  king's 
will,  sent  back  to  Holland. 

In  America  this  war  was  called  King  William's  War.  It 
consisted  in  a  border  war  between  the  English  settlers  of 
New  York  and  New  England,  and  the  French  and  Indians. 

Schenectady  in  New  York  and  several  other  outlying  towns 
were  taken  and  burned  by  the  French,  and  the  Indians  were 
allowed  to  scalp  and  murder  the  inhabitants.  The  New  Eng- 
landers  captured  Port  Eoyal  in  Acadia,  but  were  obliged  to 
give  it  back  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick. 

A  Dispute  about  the  Spanish  Succession  soon  led  to 
fresh  trouble  with  France.  The  old  King  of  Spain  was 
childless.  As  his  eldest  sister  was  the  wife  of  Louis  of 
France,  their  son  was,  according  to  the  French  claim,  heir  to 
the  throne  of  Spain.  But  William  and  the  other  kings  of 
Europe  were  not  disposed  to  allow  Louis  to  become  so 
powerful,  and  they  threatened  war  unless  he  would  give  up 
the  claim.  Louis  was  not  jet  ready  for  another  war,  so  he 
yielded,  and  signed  a  treaty  by  which  a  part  of  Spain's  terri- 
tory was  to  go  to  France,  and  the  rest  of  it,  with  the  crown, 
to  the  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria.  This  treaty  Louis  re- 
fused to  carry  out  when  the  news  came  that  the  king  of 
Spain  was  dead,  and  that  he  had  left  his  throne  to  the  grand- 
son of  Louis.  "There  are  no  longer  any  Pyrenees!"  he  ex- 
claimed triumphantly,  meaning  that  now  France  and  Spain 
were  one  nation.  The  Spanish  Netherlands,  which  he  had 
so  long  fought  for,  would  become  his,  and  the  union  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  power  would  make  him  able  to  defy  all 
the  rest  of  Europe. 

It  was  not  long  before  Louis  showed  his  defiance  of  Eng- 
land. He  had  acknowledged  William  as  the  rightful  King 
of  England  in  the  Treaty  of  Eyswick.  But  in  1701,  when 
James  II.  died  in  Paris,  Louis  immediately  declared  that 

Nxvm 


272  ORANGE  [1Y01 

James's  son,  James  Edward,  was  the  rightful  king,  and  prom- 
ised to  help  him  in  getting  the  throne. 

Act  of  Settlement.  The  Bill  of  Eights  had  provided  for 
the  disposition  of  the  crown,  but  as  Anne's  children  all  died, 
an  Act  of  Settlement  was  passed  in  1701  providing  that  at 
her  death  the  crown  should  go  to  the  Electress  Sophia  of 
Hanover,  granddaughter  of  James  I.,  and  her  heirs.  The 
object  of  this  act  was  to  secure  a  Protestant  succession.  It 
was  just  after  this  that  news  came  of  James  II.'s  death  and 
the  declaration  of  Louis.  The  haughty  insolence  of  the 
French,  in  presuming  to  appoint  a  king  of  England,  was 
more  than  the  English  people  could  endure.  Though  they 
were  half  disposed  to  allow  Louis  to  have  his  own  way  in 
Spain,  a  general  demand  for  war  was  aroused  by  his  support 
of  another  Stuart  in  claiming  the  throne  of  England. 

A  Grand  Alliance  was  made  by  William  against  France. 
Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  England,  and  Austria  combined 
to  keep  Louis  out  of  the  Netherlands,  and  to  compel  an 
agreement  that  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain  should  never 
be  united.  The  object  of  the  alliance  was  to  preserve  the 
balance  of  power. 

A  new  Parliament,  called  in  1701,  began  preparation  for 
war,  in  the  midst  of  which  William's  horse  stumbled  one  day 
over  a  molehill  and  fell  with  him.  The  king's  collar  bone 
was  broken,  and  from  this  and  other  injuries  he  died.  The 
nation,  which  had  learned  to  respect  and  love  him,  mourned  at 
his  death.  A  statue  of  the  king  in  one  of  the  corridors  of  the 
Bank  of  England  bears  this  inscription :  "  To  the  memory  of 
the  best  of  princes,  William  of  Orange,  founder  of  the  Bank 
of  England."  Louis  XIV.  rejoiced,  for  he  thought  now  that 
his  worst  enemy  was  gone.  And  the  Jacobites,  in  their  secret 
meetings,  drank  many  a  toast  to  the  "little  gentlemen  in 
black  velvet"  whose  earthwork  had  caused  King  William's 
death. 


1702]  ANNE  273 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  circumstances  gave   rise  to  each   of   the   three  great  docu- 

ments of  the  English  constitution? 

2.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Act  of  Settlement? 

3.  What  interest  did  the  Irish  and  Scotch  have  in  supporting  James? 

Why  did  the  French  king  support  him? 

4.  Compare  Tyrconnel's  massacres  in  Ireland  with  those  of  Cromwell. 

5.  What  caused  the  rise  of  the  Jacobites  and  Non-jurors? 

6.  Why  did  the  French  king  break  the  treaty  of  Ryswick? 


TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  STORY  OF  GLEXCOE.     Colby,  Sources  of  English  History,  pp. 

220-222;  Scott,  Talcs  of  a  Grandfather,  Ch.  LVIII. 

2.  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  BOYNE.     Hale,  Fall  of  the  Stuarts,  pp.  181- 

186;  Yonge,  Cameos  from  English  History,  VIII.,  pp.  135-148. 

3.  BATTLE  OF  LA  HOGUE.     Gardiner,  Student's  History,  p.  658;  Hale, 

Fall  of  the  Stuarts, 

4.  KILLIECRANKIE.     Rolfe,  Tales  from  Scottish  History,  pp.  130-134; 

Hale,  Fall  of  the  Stuarts,  pp.  165-168. 


D.    THE  WAR  AGAINST  FRENCH  DOMINATION. 
Anne,  1702-1714. 

The  Accession  of  the  New  Queen  made  no  change  in 
the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  government.  Anne  was  well 
liked  by  the  English  people,  and  the  title  of  "  Good  Queen 
Anne  "  was  given  her.  She  stood  up  for  the  rule  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  and  disliked  all  dissenters.  The  Tory  party 
wanted  to  keep  dissenters  out  of  public  offices,  while  the 
Whigs  were  willing  to  admit  them  if  they  would  come  oc- 
casionally to  the  established  church.  This  was  called  "  occa- 
sional conformity." 

Though  Anne  had  a  kindly  disposition,  she  firmly  be- 
lieved in  the  old  Stuart  idea  of  the  "  divine  right  of  kings/' 
and  in  the  superstition  that  the  sovereign  could  cure  people  of 
scrofula,  or  "king's  evil,"  by  touching  them.  This  practice 
began  with  Edward  the  Confessor,  whose  great  piety,  it  is 


274 


THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART 


[1702 


said,  enabled  him  to  effect  miraculous  cures.  But  Charles  II. 
also,  who  was  not  noted  for  piety,  "touched  for  the  king's 
evil/'  The  practice  was  to  bring  the  sick,  one  at  a  time, 
before  the  king,  who  laid  his  hands  upon  them  while  the 
bishop  repeated  the  words,  "And  he  laid  his  hands  upon 
them  and  healed  them/'  Queen  Anne  was  the  last  sovereign 
to  observe  this  custom. 

The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  filled  most  of  Queen 
Anne's  reign.    The  armies  of  the  Grand  Alliance  were  under 


SPANISH  NETHERLANDS  ABOUT  1700. 

the  command  of  John  Churchill,  Earl  and  later  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  who  had  been  recommended  by  William  as  the 
ablest  man  for  the  work.  Churchill  had  been  a  friend  of 
James  II.,  and  held  a  command  in  the  army  when  William 
landed  in  England.  Like  many  of  James's  friends,  he  de- 
serted him  for  the  Protestant  prince.  He  had  fought  in 
Ireland  and  the  Netherlands  for  King  William,  but  when 
things  were  going  badly  on  the  continent  he  had  thought  of 
going  over  to  James  again,  and  treacherously  informed  the 
French  of  an  intended  attack  on  Brest  (map,  p.  164).  The 


1704] 


AXXE 


275 


commander  made  such  good  preparation  that  the  whole  Eng- 
lish force  of  700  men  was  killed  or  captured. 

In  spite  of  this  treason,  William  took  Marlborough  again 
into  confidence,  and  left  to  him  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
already  begun  when  Anne  became  queen.  Prince  Eugene  of 
Savoy  was  his  able  assistant,  and  commanded  the  troops  of 
Portugal,  Savoy,  and  Austria,  while  Marlborough  was  at  the 
head  of  the  English,  Dutch,  and  some  Germans. 

Just  before  the  beginning  of  the  war,  Louis  had  seized 
many  forts  and  towns  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  and  forti- 
fied them.  This  threatened  Hol- 
land with  invasion.  The  first 
two  years  of  the  war  were  spent 
in  recapturing  enough  of  these 
towns  to  secure  Holland.  Mean- 
while Bavaria  joined  France, 
and  in  170-1  a  French  army 
gathered  there  along  the  Danube, 
preparing  for  the  conquest  of 
Austria. 

Blenheim.  Marlborough  now 
led  his  army  to  Bavaria,  and  met 
the  enemy  at  the  village  of  Blenheim,  on  the  Danube.  Keep- 
ing the  French  busy  with  an  attack  on  the  fortified  village,  he 
led  in  person  a  tremendous  cavalry  charge  against  the  center. 
Their  army  was  cut  in  two  and  terribly  defeated,  losing  more 
than  half  their  number  in  killed,  wounded,  and  captured. 

It  was  the  first  time  the  armies  of  Louis  had  met  defeat. 
For  half  a  century  he  had  broken  treaties  and  oaths,  and 
lorded  it  over  weaker  nations  at  his  pleasure.  He  had  tried 
to  force  two  kings  on  the  English  people,  and  a  third  one 
had  been  his  paid  servant.  Xo  wonder  that  the  English 
rejoiced  over  his  downfall,  and  rewarded  his  conqueror.  A 
large  estate  was  given  to  Marlborough  by  Parliament,  and 


BATTLE  OF  BLENHEIM. 


276  THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART  [1704 

a  great  palace  was  built  for  him,  appropriately  named  Blen- 
heim, which  still  remains  in  the  possession  of  his  descendants. 


BLENHEIM. 

The  battle  of  Blenheim  drove  the  French  across  the  Ehine 
and  out  of  Germany.  They  now  gathered  their  armies  in 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  for  the  defense  of  their  garrisons 
there. 

The  Year  of  Victories  (1706)  began  with  the  battle  of 
Eamillies.  The  cavalry  again  won  the  day,  and  the  French 
lost  15,000  men.  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  and  other  towns 
were  taken  in  quick  succession,  and  the  power  of  France  in 
the  Netherlands  was  broken.  In  1708  and  1709  the  French 
made  attempts  to  regain  what  they  had  lost.  Marlborough 
beat  them  again  at  Oudenarde  and  Malplaquet ;  and,  defeated 
and  disheartened,  they  abandoned  the  Netherlands  and  were 
ready  to  make  peace. 

English  Success  in  Spain  had  kept  pace  with  their  vie- 


1710]  ANNE  27? 

tories  elsewhere.  The  Spanish  fort  at  Gibraltar  was  cap- 
tured in  1704.  The  high  rock  on  which  the  fort  stood,  is 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land. 
While  the  Spanish  were  celebrating  a  religious  festival,  the 
English  clambered  up  the  rock  and  found  only  150  men  on 
guard,  who  were  easily  conquered.  Gibraltar  was  held,  and 
still  remains  a  British  stronghold,  guarding  the  strait  and 
the  highway  to  the  Indian  empire. 

An  Act  of  Union  between  England  and  Scotland  was 
arranged  in  1707.  When  James  I.  became  King  of  England, 
each  country  kept  its  own  parliament  and  its  own  church. 
There  were  separate  laws  for  each  kingdom.  The  Scotch 
were  not  allowed  to  sell  goods  in  England  without  paying  a 
heavy  duty.  It  was  now  agreed  that  Scotland  should  be  rep- 
resented in  the  English  Parliament  by  sixteen  peers  and 
forty-five  commoners,  that  the  name  of  the  united  countries 
should  be  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew, 
the  patron  saint  of  Scotland,  should  be  placed  upon  the 
flag  with  that  of  St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of  England. 
Free  trade  was  established  between  the  two  countries. 

Government  by  Political  Parties  began  in  England  in 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  James  II.  was  the  last  king  who 
tried  to  rule  without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  people. 
After  his  time,  the  people  gradually  attached  themselves  to 
the  two  parties  which  had  arisen  out  of  the  dispute  over  the 
Exclusion  Bill  (p.  250).  The  Tories  were  the  High  Church 
party.  They  believed  in  the  rule  of  bishops,  in  strengthening 
the  power  of  the  king,  and  in  keeping  dissenters  out  of  office. 
The  Whigs  we  may  call  the  Low  Church  party.  They  favored 
dissenters,  and  wished  to  strengthen  the  power  of  Parliament 
and  weaken  that  of  the  king.  They  favored  the  Grand 
Alliance  against  France,  and  wished  to  unite  with  the  Prot- 
estants on  the  continent  against  the  Catholic  powers.  But 
as  the  war  dragged  on  from  year  to  year,  the  Tories  grew 


278  THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART  [1710 

more  and  more  eager  to  stop  it.  They  did  not  care  whether 
a  French  prince  or  an  Austrian  prince  sat  on  the  throne  of 
Spain.  They  were  content  that  Louis  had  been  curbed  in 
his  attack  on  the  Netherlands. 

Marlborough  was  in  favor  of  continuing  the  war,  because 
it  had  brought  him  honors,  fame,  and  wealth.  The  queen, 
although  a  Tory,  was  under  the  influence  of  the  wife  of 
Marlborough,  who  was  her  most  intimate  friend.  It  is  said 
that  this  lady,  whose  name  was  Sarah  Jennings  before  her 
marriage,  ruled  in  all  court  matters,  from  the  trimming  on 
the  queen's  dress  to  the  management  of  wars  and  alliances. 
So  presuming  did  she  become  that  Anne  dismissed  her  from 
court  and  found  another  lady,  one  Mrs.  Masham,  to  take 
her  place  (1710). 

Cabinet  Government  by  the  ruling  party  in  Parliament 
grew  up  at  this  time.  Both  William  and  Anne  had  tried 
to  select  ministers  from  both  parties,  but  they  found  that 
men  of  different  ways  of  thinking|jcjould)  not  'jwoflq)  [welipto^' 
gether.  They  were  therefore  obliged  to  select  a  ministry 
entirely  from  the  strongest  party.  The  chief  ministers  at 
that  time  were  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  the  Lord  Chancellor  (the  presiding  officer 
of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  legal  adviser  of  the  Cabinet), 
the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  various  secretaries. 
Government  by  a  ministry  took  on  its  complete  form  and 
received  the  name  of  "  Cabinet  government "  in  the  next 
pign Jp.  284). 

?he  Case  of  Dr.  jSacheverelty  strengthened)  the  power  of 
the  Tories!  ~This  man  was  a  preacher  whom  nowadays  one 
would  call  a  "crank."  He  preached  sermons  advocating  the 
old  idea  that  it  was  unlawful  and  unchristian  to  Resist)  the 
king  or  queen  of  the  country.  He  also  called  the  Whigs 
hard  names  and  accused  them  of  wishing  to  overthrow  the 
English  Church.  The  Whigs  were  very  angry  at  this,  and 


1714]  ANNE  219 

impeached  him  before  the  House  of  Lords,  had  him  suspended 
from  office,  and  had  his  sermons  bufned  by  the  common 
hangman.  The  people  thought  that  Sacheverell  had  been 
punished  unjustly,  and  the  Whigs  lost  favor  everywhere. 

The  Election  of  1710  resulted  in  a  strong  Tory  Parlia- 
ment, which  forced  the  selection  of  a  strong  Tory  ministry. 
This  ministry  sent  a  man  to  Louis  to  ask  if  he  wanted  to  make 
peace.  "  It  was,"  said  Louis's  prime  minister,  "  like  asking 
a  dying  man  if  he  wished  to  be  cured/' 

Queen  Anne's  War,  as  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion was  called  in  America,  was  accompanied  by  much  the 
same  sort  of  fighting  as  the  previous  war  (p.  271).  An 
English  expedition  against  Quebec  resulted  in  total  failure, 
with  shipwreck  and  loss  of  life;  but  New  England  soldiers 
captured  and  held  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia). 

The  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed  by  France  and  the 
allies  in  1713.  Louis's  grandson,  Philip,  was  allowed  to  keep 
the  throne  of  Spain,  but  with  the  agreement  that  he  should 
never  be  made  King  of  France.  The  Spanish  parts  of  Italy 
and  of  the  Netherlands  were  given  to  Austria.  England  kept 
Gibraltar  and  Acadia.  Louis  agreed  to  acknowledge  the 
Protestant  succession  in  England,  and  to  drive  James 
Edward,  the  "  Pretender,"  as  he  was  called,  out  of  France. 

Anne  Died  in  1714,  the  last  Stuart  sovereign  to  reign  in 
England.  Her  husband,  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  had 
died  several  years  before.  He  was  a  coarse,  stupid  man, 
unfit  for  public  office,  and  never  had  anything  to  do  with 
the  government.  Their  children  all  died  young.  There  were 
still  many  Tories  who  would  have  been  glad  to  have  the  son 
of  James  II.  for  the  next  king.  If  he  had  consented  to  be- 
come a  Protestant,  he  might  have  had  the  throne;  but  this 
he  refused  to  do,  and  the  Act  of  Settlement  was  carried  out. 
The  Electress  of  Hanover  being  now  dead,  her  son  became 
George  I.  of  England. 


280  THE  STUART  KINGS  [1603 

The  Chief  Characteristic  of  the  Stuart  and  Orange-Stuart 
periods  is  the  growing  importance  of  the  people.  The  in- 
crease of  wealth,  due  to  the  growth  of  trade  and  manufactur- 
ing, brought  the  middle  classes  into  prominence. 

Woolen  Cloths  were  still  the  leading  manufacture; 
nearly  twenty  different  kinds  were  made.  But  silk,  linen, 
and  cotton  became  important  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  The 
-French  Huguenots  were  skillful  silk  weavers.  So  many  of 
them  came  to  England  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (p.  258),  that  within  ten  years  no  more  silk  was  im- 
ported, while  before  the  edict  was  revoked  £200,000  was  spent 
annually  for  French  silks. 

Mining  became  an  important  industry;  coal,  iron,  tin, 
copper,  and  salt  were  produced  and  sold  abroad.  The  great 
need  of  the  time  was  suitable  machinery  for  carrying  on  the 
operations  of  manufacturing  and  mining.  All  work  was 
done  by  hand.  England  had  to  wait  another  century  for 
the  steam  engine. 

Trade.  This  extract  from  the  "Spectator"  (p.  281) 
refers  to  the  extensive  trade  which  had  grown  up  in  England. 
"  Our  Ships  are  laden  with  the  Harvest  of  every  Climate ; 
our  Tables  are  stored  with  Spices  and  Oils  and  Wine;  our 
Eooms  are  filled  with  Pyramids  of  China,  and  adorned  with 
the  Workmanship  of  Japan;  our  Morning's  Draught  comes 
to  us  from  the  remotest  Corners  of  the  Earth;  we  repair 
our  Bodies  by  the  Drugs  of  America,  and  repose  ourselves 
under  Indian  Canopies.  My  Friend,  Sir  Andrew,  calls  the 
Vineyards  of  France  our  Gardens;  the  Spice  Islands  our 
Hot-beds;  the  Persians  our  Silk-weavers;  and  the  Chinese 
our  Potters." 

Trade,  discovery,  and  an  acquaintance  with  many  foreign 
countries  had  greatly  contributed  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
people.  Newspapers  and  books  were  cheap  and  plentiful 
enough  to  come  within  the  reach  of  the  majority. 


~ 


1714]  INDUSTRY,  LITERATURE 


The  Desire  for  News  was  first  provided  for  by  the  issue  of 
pamphlets  by  the  printers  and  stationers.  In  1622  a  weekly 
issue  of  news  was  begun  in  London  by  Nathaniel  Butter  and 
Thomas  Archer.  In  1641  "  The  Grand  Eemonstrance  "  was 
published  and  hawked  about  the  streets  by  newsboys.  It  was 
the  first  "extra"  on  record.  Later  the  papers  were  called 
"  Mercuries."  The  first  daily  newspaper,  the  "  Daily 
Courant/'  appeared  in  Queen  Anne's  time.  The  most  fa- 
mous paper,  however,  was  the  "  Spectator,"  edited  by  Eichard 
Steele  and  Joseph  Addison.  It  was  not  a  newspaper,  but  a 
kind  of  society  journal,  criticising  the  follies  and  vices  of 
the  time. 

The  coffeehouses  were  favorite  places  of  meeting  for  the 
exchange  of  news  and  gossip.  They  were  the  clubs  of  that 
time.  In  1671  they  were  closed  as  "seditious  places,"  but 
were  reopened  shortly  afterward  on  the  promise  of  the  keepers 
not  to  allow  their  guests  to  talk  too  much  about  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  Literature  of  Anne's  Time  is  next  in  importance 
to  that  of  the  Elizabethan  Age.  Addison  was  the  finest 
writer  of  prose,  and  Alexander  Pope  the  most  exact  writer 
of  poetry.  The  authors  of  the  time  prided  themselves  on 
being  very  elegant  and  exact  in  their  speaking  and  writing. 
Jonathan  Swift  wrote  "  Gulliver's  Travels,"  a  tale  of  a  voy- 
age to  the  lands  of  the  Giants  and  of  the  Lilliputians,  holding 
up  to  ridicule  the  politics  of  the  time.  De  Foe's  "  Eobinson 
Crusoe  "  was  printed  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  Anne. 
"  Gulliver's  Travels  "  and  "  Eobinson  Crusoe  "  are  the  be- 
ginning of  the  kind  of  literature  called  fiction,  meaning 
accounts  of  things  imagined  to  have  happened. 

Encouragement  to  Artists  was  given  by  Charles  II.,  the 
first  King  of  England  who  understood  and  appreciated  pic- 
tures. Eubens  and  Van  Dyck,  two  great  Flemish  artists, 
lived  for  a  time  at  his  court.  Eubens  decorated  the  king's 


282 


THE  STUART  KINGS 


[1603 


palace  of  Whitehall,  and  Van  Dyck  painted  portraits  of  the 
king  and  queen  and  their  children,  as  well  as  of  the  nobles 
and  ladies  of  the  court. 

Great  Progress  in  Science  was  made  during  the  rule  of 
the  Stuart  kings.  Bacon's  methods  of  observation  and  ex- 
periment (p.  201)  were  vigor- 
ously followed  up.  The  Eoyal 
Society  was  incorporated  by 
Charles  II.  in  1662.  Its  object 
was  to  advance  experimental 
science.  The  king  himself  did 
experiments,  and  was  consid- 
ered a  good  chemist.  Eobert 
Boyle  improved  the  air  pump, 
and  made  the  important  dis- 
covery that  gases,  like  the  air, 
expand  and  contract  according 
to  the  pressure  put  upon  them. 
Great  achievements  were 
also  made  in  astronomy.  Ed- 
mund Halley  first  calculated 
the  path  of  a  comet  which  appeared  in  1682.  He  said  the 
comet  would  come  again  in  1759  and  1835;  sure  enough  it 
did.  Isaac  Newton,  however,  is  the  greatest  name  of  this 
period.  Galileo  and  Copernicus  had  said  that  the  planets 
revolve  about  the  sun.  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler  discovered 
the  laws  of  motion  governing  the  planets.  But  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  discovered  the  law  of  gravitation,  the  force  that  holds 
the  planets  in  their  places  and  keeps  our  bodies  and  other 
objects  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  was  England  connected  with  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession? How  did  the  war  result  in  America?  How  did  it 
affect  the  balance  of  power? 


SIB  ISAAC  NEWTON. 


1714]  SCIENCE  283 

2.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  Union  between  England  and 

Scotland?     How  did  it  benefit  both  countries? 

3.  Compare  the  literature  of  Anne's  time  with  that  of  the  Elizabethan 

age. 

4.  Discuss  the  career  and  character  of  Marlborough. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  BATTLE  OF  BLENHEIM.     Henty,  The  Cornet  of  Horse;  Fitch- 

ett,  Fights  for  the  Flag,  pp.  16-32. 

2.  WHIGS   AND    TORIES.      Macaulay,   History   of   England,    I.,   240 ; 

Hale,  Fall  of  the  Stuarts,  pp.  31-34. 

3.  QUEEN    ANNE'S     FAVORITES.       Strickland,     Queens    of    England 

(abridged  edition). 

4.  SCIENTIFIC  PROGRESS.    Green,  Short  History,  pp.  610-611. 


X.    THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER.1 

A.    FORTY  YEARS  OF  PROGRESS. 
George  I.,  1714-1727. 

The  New  King  was  in  no  hurry  to  leave  his  German 
province  of  Hanover,  where  he  had  lived  happily  for  fifty- 
four  years.  He  was  an  honest,  well-meaning  man,  but  coarse 
and  lacking  in  intelligence.  He  could  not  speak  English,  and 
the  government  of  England  by  a  king  and  a  Parliament  was 
a  complete  mystery  to  him.  He  had  no  choice,  therefore, 
but  to  intrust  the  management  of  affairs  to  his  cabinet,  which 
was  made  up  entirely  of  Whigs. 

The  Rule  of  the  Cabinet.  It  had  always  been  the  cus- 
tom of  the  English  kings  to  choose  from  the  Parliament  a 
select  body  of  men  known  as  the  "privy  council."  In  this 
council  there  would  always  be  a  few  men  especially  trusted, 
and  William  III.  made  a  practice  of  calling  these  favored 

•HOUSE  OF  HANOVER,  after  1917  called  HOUSE  OF  WINDSOR 
GEORGE   I.     (1714-1727)  (p.  203) 
GEORGT    II.     (1727-1760) 
Frederick,    Prince   of   Wales, 
.GEORGE     III.      (1760-1820) 

GEORGE  IV.  WILLIAM  IV.  Edward^  Duke  of  Kent  Ernest  Augustus, 
(1820-1830)  (1830-1837)  [  Duke  of  Cumberland, 

VICTORIA  (1837-1901)  and  later  King  of 

Hanover, 

EDJTARD  VII,  (1901-1910) 

GEORGE  V.  (1910  — ) 
Edward    Albert  Albert    Frederick  Henry    William  George    Edward 

284 


1716]  GEORGE  I.  285 

few,  including  the  chief  ministers,  into  the  king's  "  cabinet," 
or  private  room,  to  discuss  matters  that  they  did  not  wish  to 
talk  about  before  the  whole  council.  These  came  to  be  called 
the  "cabinet  council,"  or  the  Cabinet.  The  rule  of  the 
Cabinet  had  been  growing  more  and  more  independent  of  the 
sovereign.  It  became  entirely  so  in  the  time  of  George  I., 
who  preferred  spending  his  time  in  social  amusements  to  at- 
tending the  meetings  of  his  Cabinet. 

Some  one  had  to  be  chosen  to  take  the  king's  place  in  pre- 
siding over  the  Cabinet  meetings.  To  this  man  the  title  of 
premier,  or  prime  minister,  was  afterwards  given.  The  first 
man  to  bear  this  title  was  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  became 
the  head  of  the  Cabinet  in  1721  (p.  288). 

The  Jacobites  had  allowed  the  new  king  to  be  crowned 
without  making  any  trouble.  But  the  exclusion  of  Tories 
from  office,  and  the  belief  that  the  Whigs  would  repeal 
the  laws  against  dissenters,  made  the  English  High  Church 
party  angry.  In  Scotland  the  Stuarts  could  always  find  sup- 
port, and  the  Earl  of  Mar  raised  a  strong  force  in  the  interest 
of  the  "  Pretender,"  James  Edward,  who  caused  himself  to 
be  proclaimed  king.  Mar  sent  1,500  men  into  England, 
while  he  himself  headed  about  10,000  against  the  Whig  leader, 
Argyle,  in  Scotland  (1715).  But  the  1,500  men,  together 
with  some  English  Jacobites,  were  compelled  to  surrender  at 
Preston,  in  Lancashire;  and  Argyle  attacked  and  scattered 
the  army  of  Mar  at  Sheriffmuir  (p.  106).  The  Highlanders, 
however,  claimed  half  a  victory,  as  the  old  ballad  runs : 

"  There's  some  say  that  we  won,  and  some  say  that  they  won, 

And  some  say  that  none  won  at  a',  man ; 
But  one  thing  is  sure,  that  at  Sheriffmuir, 
A  battle  there  was,  which  I  saw,  man." 

The  Pretender,  unaware  of  these  battles,  now  landed  in 
Scotland.  He  had  expected  to  bring  a  strong  French  force 
with  him,  but  his  friend  Louis  XIV.  died,  and  the  new  French 


286  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1716 

ruler  would  give  no  aid.  Stupid,  selfish,  and  slow,  James 
Edward  failed  to  arouse  any  enthusiasm  for  his  cause,  and 
soon  returned  to  the  continent. 

The  Septennial  Act.  The  first  Triennial  Act,  passed  by 
the  Long  Parliament  (p.  222),  had  been  repealed  at  the 
Eestoration.  In  William's  reign  a  second  one  had  been 
passed,  which  said  that  a  new  House  of  Commons  must  be 
chosen  at  least  every  three  years.  Now,  in  the  disturbed  con- 
dition of  the  country,  it  was  thought  dangerous  and  incon- 
venient to  have  elections  so  often;  so  a  Septennial  Act  was 
now  passed,  extending  the  term  during  which  a  Parliament 
may  serve,  to  seven  years.  This  law  is  still  in  force. 

The  South  Sea  Company  was  founded  in  Anne's  reign  by 
Lord  Treasurer  Harley.  Its  members  were  men  to  whom 
the  government  owed  money.  Harley  induced  them  to  take 
interest-bearing  bonds  in  payment,  and  gave  them  a  monopoly 
of  the  South  American  trade.  This  consisted  of  the  privilege 
of  selling  slaves  to  the  Spanish  colonies  there,  and  of  sending 
one  shipload  of  goods  each  year.  Spain  had  given  these 
privileges  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  com- 
pany made  various  other  plans  for  extending  trade,  and  pro- 
posed a  scheme  to  pay  up  the  national  debt  by  inducing  the 
creditors  of  the  government  to  exchange  their  claims  for  stock 
in  the  company  (1720).  It  was  given  out  that  the  govern- 
ment had  invested  large  sums  in  the  enterprise,  and  that  the. 
profits  of  the  stockholders  would  be  enormous.  And  so  those 
who  had  lent  money  to  the  government  were  eager  to  get  the 
company's  stock.  Thousands  of  others  who  had  saved  up 
money  invested  it  in  this  way.  So  great  was  the  craze  that 
the  price  went  up  from  $500  to  $5,000  a  share. 

So  remarkable  was  the  success  in  selling  the  stock  of  this 
company  that  dozens  of  other  similar  companies  were  begun. 
So  many  people  crowded  the  offices  on  Change  Alley  in  Lon- 
don, buying  and  selling  stock,  that  some  of  the  business  was 


1721] 


GEORGE  I. 


287 


done  in  the  street.  As  people  became  more  credulous,  com- 
panies were  formed  even  for  such  objects  as  making  salt 
water  fresh,  making  a  perpetual-motion  wheel,  and  telling 
fortunes  by  the  stars ;  and  finally  one  man  sold  $10,000  worth 
of  stock  in  an  enterprise  so  wonderful  that  he  refused  to  tell 
it  at  once.  After  a  time  it  dawned  on  the  investors  that 
they  had  been  cheated.  But  when  they  tried  to  sell  their 


CHANGE  ALLEY  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  SOOTH  SEA  BUBBLE. 

stock,  no  one  would  buy  it.     Every  one  had  stock  to  sell,  but 
there  being  no  purchasers  the  stock  was  worthless. 

When  the  story  came  out  that  the  South  Sea  Company  had 
bribed  the  ministers  to  support  its  schemes,  there  was  an  out- 
cry against  the  government  for  having  encouraged  the  tre- 
mendous fraud  by  which  thousands  of  poor  people  had  lost 
their  savings.  One  of  the  Cabinet  was  expelled  from  Parlia- 
ment; the  cashier  of  the  company  fled  to  Holland;  others 
were  arrested  and  punished. 

NlVEJR  —  l» 


288  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1721 

A  New  Cabinet  was  formed  (1721)  with  Walpole  as 
prime  minister.  He  had,  from  the  first,  condemned  the 
South  Sea  scheme  and  was  now -the  only  man  that  had  the 
popular  confidence.  The  private  property  of  the  officers 
of  the  company  was  seized  and  distributed  among  those  who 
had  been  the  chief  losers.  But  as  for  thousands  who  had  in- 
vested their  money  in  some  other  enterprises,  the  only  re- 
turn they  ever  got  was  their  experience. 

H.      The  Wealth  of  the  Country  was  shown  by  the  large 

'amounts  invested  in  these  companies.     The  government  had 

not  dreamed  that  the  people  were  so  rich.     It  thus  learned 

a  way  of  raising  money  in  future  emergencies  —  borrowing 

it  of  the  people. 

Walpole's  Ministry  was  the  first  one  formed  according  to 
the  method  which  is  followed  to-day.  That  is,  the  king 
gave  him  power  to  choose  the  other  members  of  the  Cabinet. 
They  were  chosen  from  the  Whig  party,  as  the  Whigs  then 
had  the  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Walpole  was  an 
excellent  financier  and  man  of  business.  He  said  it  was 
always  good  policy  to  "let  sleeping  dogs  lie."  He  gave  the 
country  rest  from  wars  for  about  twenty  years.  He  was 
careful  not  to  stir  up  opposition  among  the  people.  He  did 
not  dare  repeal  the  laws  excluding  dissenters  from  office,  but 
he  evaded  them  by  making  good  the  losses  suffered  on  account 
of  the  laws. 

Political  Corruption  was  commonly  practiced  in  Walpole's 
time.  He  got  men  to  vote  for  his  measures  in  Parliament, 
and  at  the  elections,  by  paying  them  money.  He  said  that 
"  every  man  has  his  price/'  In  those  times  it  was  hard  to 
find  a  man  who  would  not  sell  his  vote.  He  said  that  all 
inen  were  naturally  bad,  and  that  they  would  remain  so.  He 
had  nothing  but  contempt  for  reformers  and  did  not  believe 
it  possible  to  bring  about  a  purer  and  better  state  of  things. 

At  that  time,  the  meetings  of  Parliament  were  secret.    No 


1727]  GEORGE  II.  289 

visitors  were  allowed,  and  no  newspapers  might  publish  the 
speeches  made,  or  the  way  in  which  any  man  voted.  A  mem- 
ber could,  therefore,  sell  his  vote  without  fear  that  the  people 
would  ever  know  anything  about  it.  Most  of  those  who  had 
a  right  to  vote  for  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  were 
sure  to  vote  for  the  candidate  who  gave  them  plenty  to  drink 
and  the  most  money.  England  now  has  very  strict  laws  pre- 
venting such  bribery ;  but  they  were  not  made  till  after  many 
years  of  corruption. 

Drunkenness  and  Immorality  were  as  common  as  cor- 
ruption. People  of  all  classes  drank  to  excess,  from  the 
vagrant  in  the  street  to  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Duel- 
ing and  gambling  were  the  everyday  amusements  of  the  accom- 
plished gentleman,  while  many  of  the  lower  classes  plied  the 
baser  professions  of  the  cutthroat,  the  pickpocket,  and  the 
highwayman. 

The  Death  of  George  I.  took  place  in  1727.  On  the  road 
to  Hanover,  he  was  stricken  in  his  carriage  with  apoplexy 
and  died  in  a  few  minutes. 

George  II.,  1727-1760. 

The  Second  George  was  in  some  respects  an  improvement 
on  his  father.  He  could  speak  broken  English,  and  could 
understand  the  language  well  enough  to  take  part  in  public 
affairs.  He  had  little  ability,  but  had  a  high  regard  for 
justice.  He  would  not  knowingly  allow  any  one  to  be 
wronged.  He  was  a  brave  soldier,  too;  he  had  fought  under 
Marlborough  in  the  battles  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  his 
own  reign  he  commanded  an  army  in  another  European  war. 

Ideas  of  Trade  and  Commerce  were  very  different  then 
from  what  they  are  now.  No  nation  would  then  allow  its 
colonies  to  trade  with  other  nations,  even  though  the  articles 
bought  by  the  colony  were  not  to  be  had  in  the  mother  coun- 
try. It  was  not  understood  that,  when  two  countries  made 


290  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1727 

an  exchange  of  goods,  both  might  be  made  richer.  When 
Spain,  England,  and  Holland  forbade  their  colonies  to  trade 
with  other  countries,  they  did  not  see  that  by  making  their 
colonies  poorer  they  were  making  them  less  able  to  buy 
goods  of  the  mother  country.  England,  for  example,  tried  to 
prevent  the  New  England  colonists  from  trading  with  the 
French  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  where  they  exchanged 
fish  for  sugar.  Part  of  the  sugar  was  sold  at  home,  while 
much  of  it  was  made  into  rum  and  exchanged  in  Africa  for 
slaves,  which  found  a  ready  sale  for  cash  in  the  West  Indies 
and  southern  colonies.  Having  the  cash  they  were  ready  to 
buy  more  English  goods.  In  this  way  England  profited  by  the 
trade  which  she  was  trying  to  stop. 

Spain,  in  like  manner,  forbade  all  nations  to  trade  with 
her  colonies  in  America.  England  had  obtained  a  small 
share  in  this  trade  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  but  twenty  years 
later  Spain  and  France  entered  into  an  agreement  to  cut  off 
England's  trade  as  much  as  possible  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

English  Smuggling  had  been  extensively  carried  on  with 
all  the  Spanish  colonies,  with  profit  to  both  the  colonies  and 
the  English  merchants.  Spain  now  tried  to  stop  this,  and 
many  a  tale  of  the  cruelty  of  Spanish  coast  guards  came  to 
England.  Finally  one  Captain  Jenkins  came  before  the  House 
of  Commons  and  exhibited  an  ear  which  he  claimed  had  been 
cut  off  by  Spanish  officials  in  the  West  Indies  and  given  to 
him  with  the  words,  "  Go,  take  that  to  your  king !" 

"  The  War  of  Jenkins's  Ear  "  was  the  name  given  to  the 
short  war  following  this  incident.  There  had  been  a 
popular  cry  for  a  war  with  Spain,  and  this  tale  roused  a  storm 
which  Walpole  could  not  resist,  though  he  believed  that 
Jenkins's  story  was  a  lie  from  beginning  to  end.  Walpole 
knew  that  the  war  was  unjust,  because  the  English  were  break- 
ing a  treaty  by  which  they  agreed  not  to  send  more  than  one 


,_)   ,  9./^_ 

1742]  GEORGE  II.    ^/^  291 

ship  of  600  tons  each  year.  But,  right  or  wrong,  the  mer- 
chants were  bound  to  trade.  There  was  another  point  in 
dispute  between  Spain  and  England  at  this  time,  the  Florida 
boundary. 

Georgia,  the  Thirteenth  Colony  in  America,  was  founded 
in  1733.  James  Oglethorpe,  a  kind  army  officer,  seeing  the 
terrible  condition  of  the  debtor  class  in  England,  formed  a 
company  for  settling  poor  debtors  on  the  land  south  of  the 
Carolinas.  It  was  the  law  in  England  that  a  man  who  was 
in  debt,  even  for  only  a  few  shillings,  might  be  thrown  into 
jail,  to  remain  there  until  the  debt  was  paid.  Unless  he  had 
friends  to  help  him,  he  might  remain  there  till  he  died.  Ogle- 
thorpe obtained  permission  to  take  imprisoned  debtors  over  to 
his  colony  and  give  them  a  chance  to  begin  over  again.  But 
the  land  on  which  they  settled  was  claimed  by  Spain  as  part  of 
Florida. 

End  of  Walpole's  Ministry.  When  the  announcement 
was  made  in  London  that  Walpole  had  consented  to  declare 
war  the  people  went  wild  with  delight,  lighting  bonfires  and 
ringing  bells.  "  They  are  ringing  their  bells  now,"  said  Sir 
Eobert,  "but  they  will  soon  be  wringing  their  hands/'  A 
fleet  sent  against  the  South  American  towns  succeeded  in 
taking  Porto  Bello,  but  was  defeated  with  loss  at  Cartagena. 
Later  in  the  war,  another  fleet  inflicted  great  loss  on  the 
Spanish  colonies  and  brought  home  a  large  amount  of  treasure. 
There  was  some  fighting  between  Georgia  and  Florida. 

Walpole,  accused  of  conducting  the  war  in  a  half-hearted, 
inefficient  way,  was  obliged  to  resign  in  1742.  The  next  great 
prime  minister  was  Henry  Pelham  (1744-1754),  who  was 
aided  by  his  elder  brother,  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.  His  policy 
was  to  give  offices  to  the  members  of  Parliament  who  had 
influence  and  could  make  others  vote  their  way.  Money  was 
used  as  freely  as  in  Walpole's  time.  The  two  brothers,  by 
buying  elections  with  the  state  funds,  and  by  judiciously  dis- 


292  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1743 

posing  of  favors,  kept  every  one  in  good  humor  and  secured 
the  votes  necessary  to  carry  out  their  measures. 

The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  is  interesting  for 
the  reason  that  King  George  took  part  in  it,  and  was  the 
last  reigning  English  king  who  ever  commanded  an  army  in 
a  battle.  It  grew  out  of  the  attempt  of  the  powers  of 
Europe  to  deprive  Maria  Theresa,  the  ruler  of  Austria,  of 
part  of  her  territory.  Hanover  took  the  side  of  Austria,  and 
George  led  a  German  army  against  the  French.  His  army, 
cut  off  from  its  supplies,  attempted  to  pass  through  the  valley 
of  Dettingen,  in  central  Germany,  but  was  met  by  a  French 
army  nearly  twice  its  size  (1743).  George  dismounted  from 
his  horse,  drew  his  sword,  and  putting  himself  at  the  right  of 
his  men,  cried  out,  "  Now  boys,  for  the  honor  of  our  country, 
fire  and  fight  bravely,  and  the  French  will  soon  run."  The 
French  did  run,  and  George  led  his  army  to  safety. 

The  next  year,  England  was  dragged  into  the  war,  which 
continued  till  1748 ;  it  was  then  ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  by  which  England  and  France  each  restored 
the  conquests  it  had  made.  In  America  the  war  was 
called  King  George's  War,  and  the  chief  event  was  the  cap- 
ture of  the  great  French  fortress  Louisburg  by  the  English 
colonists. 

The  "  Young  Pretender,"  Charles,  eldest  son  of  James 
Edward,  made  an  attempt  to  stir  up  rebellion  in  1745.  He 
came  with  seven  followers  to  the  northern  coast,  and  soon 
gathered  several  thousand  Highlanders  about  him.  He  de- 
feated an  army  slightly  smaller  than  his  own  at  Prestonpans 
so  badly  that  only  a  few  hundred  escaped  death  or  capture. 
He  then  advanced  into  England,  but  could  gather  few  fol- 
lowers, and  was  obliged  to  retire.  The  next  year  he  was 
defeated  at  Culloden  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  The 
massacre  of  the  prisoners  and  wounded  was  an  everlasting 
disgrace  to  the  conqueror. 


1746] 


GEORGE  II. 


293 


Charles  wandered  a  fugitive  for  months  among  the  hills 
of  Scotland.  He  was  at  last  assisted  to  escape  by  a  young 
lady  named  Flora  Mac- 
Donald.  Her  stepfather 
was  an  officer  in  the 
king's  army.  From  him 
she  obtained  a  pass  for 
herself  and  a  female  serv- 
ant. Charles,  dressed  in 
woman's  clothes,  was  the 
servant.  She  took  him 
to  the  island  of  Skye, 
from  which  he  escaped  to 
France.  Charles  never 
appeared  in  Scotland 


MONUMENT  ON  BATTLEFIELD  OF  CULLODEN. 


or    England    again,    and 

the  House  of  Stuart  no  longer  played  any  part  in  history. 

The  faithfulness  of  the  Scotch  to  the  Stuarts  is  worthy  of 
admiration.  Though  a  large  reward  was  offered  for  Charles's 
arrest,  not  one  would  betray  him.  His  story  is  to  this  day 
remembered  and  sung  in  Scotland.  One  of  the  songs  runs : 

"Over  the  water  and  over  the  sea, 
And  over  the  water  to  Charlie ; 
Come  weal,  come  woe,  we'll  gather  and  go, 
And  live  or  die  with  Charlie." 

Laxity  in  Morals.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  Eestora- 
tion  in  1660,  people  had  been  growing  more  and  more  wicked, 
and  neither  the  church  nor  the  laws  had  done  much  to  make 
them  better.  The  ministers  themselves  were  indolent  and 
careless,  spending  their  time  in  card  playing,  fox  hunting,  and 
low  amusements.  Some  of  them  did  not  even  live  in  the 
parishes  where  their  churches  were.  The  few  people  who 
attended  church  gossiped  or  fell  asleep  while  the  minister 
"mumbled"  the  prayers. 


294  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1736 

The  Severe  Laws  seemed  only  to  make  more  criminals. 
More  than  two  hundred  offenses  were  punished  by  hanging. 
Stealing  above  the  amount  of  five  shillings,  whether  food, 
goods,  or  money,  was  punished  by  death.  It  was  a  common 
sight  to  find  twenty  or  more  bodies  dangling  in  front  of 
Newgate  prison  on  a  Monday  morning,  while  the  foul  and 
dismal  jails  were  crowded  with  victims  awaiting  slower  death 
through  fever  and  starvation.  Lesser  crimes  were  punished 
by  the  stocks,  the  pillory,  and  flogging.  The  punishment  of 
the  criminals  was  considered  an  interesting  and  amusing 
performance,  not  only  by  the  rabble,  but  by  fine  ladies  and 
gentlemen,  who  gathered  to  witness  it  much  as  one  would 
go  to  the  circus  or  the  theater. 

Drunkenness  increased,  owing  to  the  introduction  of  cheap 
gin  and  rum.  The  officers  of  the  government  were  no  better 
than  others.  Walpole  was  guilty,  not  only  of  bribery  and 
corruption  in  politics,  but  also  of  drunkenness  and  foul  lan- 
guage in  his  private  life.  It  was  the  ambition  of  even  Eng- 
lish statesmen  to  drink  in  public  until  they  rolled  off  their 
chairs. 

The  Number  of  Schools  had  not  increased  since  the  time 
of  Edward  VI.,  and  children  grew  up  in  ignorance,  learning 
only  the  vice  and  depravity  of  the  streets.  The  churches  paid 
little  attention  to  the  children.  There  was  little  religious 
teaching  either  in  the  church  or  in  the  home.  Hannah  More 
tells  us  that  in  one  parish  she  found  only  "  one  Bible,  and  that 
was  used  as  a  prop  for  a  flower-pot." 

A  Great  Religious  Revival  began  with  some  young  men 
who  were  students  in  the  Oxford  colleges.  The  leaders 
among  them  were  George  Whitefield,  and  the  brothers  John 
and  Charles  Wesley.  Their  regular  habits  of  work  and  wor- 
ship, and  the  orderly  and  careful  way  in  which  they  lived, 
soon  gave  them  the  name  of  "  Methodist/'  and  this  name  was 
kept  for  the  new  church  which  grew  out  of  their  preaching. 


1744] 


GEORGE  II. 


295 


In  order  to  reach  the  people  who  did  not  go  to  church,, 
the  Methodists  preached  in  the  open  air  under  the  oak  trees, 
riding  on  horseback  from  place  to  place.  The  people  came 
by  thousands  to  hear  them.  Near  Bristol,  Whitefield  preached 
to  twenty  thousand  miners,  and  so  powerfully  did  he  speak 
to  them  about  their  sins  and  evil  lives,  and  the  certainty  that 
punishment  would  come  upon  them,  that  the  tears  flowed, 
"  making  white  channels  down  their  blackened  cheeks/'  The 
Methodist  preachers  visited  the  foul  slums  of  London,  where 
the  people  seldom 
had  a  chance  to  hear 
of  anything  good. 
On  the  wharfs  and  the 
street  corners,  wher- 
ever listeners  could 
be  found,  they  would 
preach  to  the  people, 
urging  them  to  give 
up  their  drunkenness 
and  gambling  and  to 
lead  better,  purer 
lives.  Whitefield  and 
the  Wesleys  did  not 
confine  their  work  to  England,  but  visited  the  American 
colonies  also. 

Charles  Wesley  was  noted  as  a  hymn  writer,  and  this  new 
form  of  worship  was  sung  in  words  so  beautiful  and  strong 
that  his  influence  for  good  was  not  surpassed  by  the  most 
eloquent  of  the  preachers. 

Though  it  was  not  the  intention  of  these  men  to  separate 
from  the  English  Church,  their  manner  of  work  was  so  dif- 
ferent from  the  old  ways,  that  John  Wesley  organized  a  new 
church.  Before  his  death  (1791),  it  numbered  110,000 
members. 


JOHN  WESLEY'S  HOUSE. 


296  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1780 

The  Effects  of  this  "  Wesleyan "  Movement,  as  it  is 
called,  were  most  important.  The  English  Church  was  stirred 
up  to  new  life  and  energy,  and  its  eyes  were  opened  to  the 
great  evils  of  the  times.  Towards  the  close  of  the  century 
Eobert  Eaikes  of  Gloucester  established  Sunday  schools  for 
the  religious  education  of  the  children,  a  movement  which  has 
spread  through  the  whole  Christian  world.  Next,  day  schools 
appeared  and  increased  until  finally,  before  the  middle  of  the 
next  century,  a  system  of  public  schools  was  begun. 

John  Howard,  a  sheriff  of  Bedfordshire,  began  in  1774  to 
tell  people  about  the  evil  condition  of  the  prisons  under  his 
care.  The  prisoners  were  confined  in  dark  and  filthy  cells 
and  were  treated  with  the  greatest  cruelty  by  their  keepers, 
who  lived  on  the  money  which  they  could  compel  them  to  pay. 
Sometimes  a  man  who  had  served  his  sentence  could  not  go 
free  because  he  could  not  pay  the  jailer  for  the  food  which 
had  been  furnished  him.  Howard  went  through  many  of  the 
prisons  in  England,  as  well  as  in  France  and  Germany.  He 
had  himself  put  in  prison  so  he  could  know  by  actual  experi- 
ence just  what  the  prisoners  had  to  suffer.  He  wrote  a  book 
describing  all  he  had  seen,  and  from  that  time  things  began 
to  improve,  because  he  showed  people  the  terrible  conditions 
which,  prevailed. 

An  Important  Reform  in  the  Calendar  was  made  in  1752. 
Before  that  time  the  year  began  on  the  25th  of  March,  "Lady's 
Day,"  and  was  reckoned  to  be  365^  days  in  length.  This 
length  had  been  established  by  Julius  Caesar.  But  it  was 
found  that  a  year  is  not  exactly  86514  days,  but  about  eleven 
minutes  less.  In  Catholic  countries  a  new  style  calendar  had 
been  adopted,  by  order  of  the  Pope,  which  reckoned  the  year 
at  very  nearly  its  true  length.  In  1752  English  dates  were 
eleven  days  behind  those  of  the  continent,  and  to  set  them 
right  the  3d  of  September  was  called  the  14th,  and  the  new 
year  was  made  to  begin  on  January  1st. 


1744]  GEORGE  II.  297 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  was  the  Privy  Council?     How  did  the  Cabinet  arise? 

2.  Compare    the    time    of    Walpole    with    the    present    in    regard    to 

political  corruption.     Why  was  it  allowed  then  and  not  now? 

3.  What  determines  the  length  of  time  that  a  Parliament  may  serve? 

4.  In  what  way  was  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover  a  benefit 

to  the  English  people? 

5.  Describe  the  reforms  in  religion  and  morals.     What  good  results 

followed   from   them  ? 

6.  Why  was  the  commerce  of  the  colonies  restricted  to  Great  Britain? 


TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  PRINCE    CHARLIE.     Henty,    Bonnie    Prince    Charlie;    Scott,    Red- 

gauntlet;  Morris,  Historic  Tales,  English,  pp.  260-279,  300-319. 

2.  GEORGE  WHITEFIELD.     Holt,  Out  in  the  Forty-five. 

3.  JOHN  WESLEY.    Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  333-335 ;  Yonge,  Cameos 

from  English  History,  IV.,  pp.  1-12. 

4.  THE  SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.     Wright,  Stories  of  American  History. 

5.  GIBRALTAR.     Church,  Stories  from  English  History,  III.,  Ch.  XVI. 

6.  THE  CABINET.     Moran,  English  Government,  chap.  IV-X. 

B.    THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  EMPIRE. 

A  Struggle  for  Empire  was  going  on  all  over  the  world, 
wherever  France  and  Great  Britain  had  possessions.  This 
struggle  really  lasted  from  1744  till  1763. 

In  order  to  know  what  all  the  trouble  was  about,  we  must 
remember  that  since  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus, 
five  nations  of  Europe,  Portugal,  Spain,  Holland,  England, 
<md  France,  had  sent  out  ships  and  colonists  into  every  part 
of  the  world  to  settle  and  to  engage  in  trade.  At  first  there 
was  room  enough  for  all,  but  sooner  or  later  jealousy  and 
strife  was  sure  to  come. 

Spain  and  Portugal  were  the  first  to  begin  a  dispute  over 
their  respective  claims.  This  was  settled  by  a  decision  of  the 
Pope,  and  by  a  treaty.  A  line  was  drawn  across  the  map  from 
north  to  south,  giving  to  Portugal  all  new  lands  from  Brazil 
east  to  the  East  Indies,  and  to  Spain  all  of  America  except 


298 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1579 


Brazil.  Next  Holland,  after  gaining  her  independence  from 
Spain  about  1579,  came  into  the  field  and  soon  became  the 
greatest  commercial  nation  in  Europe.  She  outstripped  the 
Portuguese  in  the  East,  seized  Sumatra,  Java,  and  other 
islands  of  the  East  Indies,  besides  parts  of  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  came  to  control  the  larger  part  of  the  East  Indian  trade. 


INDIA. 

England  and  Spain  fought  long  wars  over  the  Western 
trade ;  but  the  English  colonies  were  located  in  the  north  and 
those  of  Spain  in  the  south,  and  did  not  fight  each  other  very 
much.  The  English  naval  power  proved  too  strong  for  Hol- 
land, but  these  two  countries  were  usually  friendly,  and  the 
power  of  the  Dutch  was  too  firmly  established  in  the  Indies 


1748]  GEORGE  II.  299" 

to  be  disturbed.  In  Africa  and  India,  however,  they  were  in 
the  end  driven  out  by  the  English. 

The  wars  of  France  and  England,  at  home  and  with 
each  other,  at  first  kept  these  nations  from  giving  much  atten- 
tion to  the  settlement  of  new  lands.  But  we  have  seen  how, 
in  the  peaceful  reign  of  Elizabeth,  English  merchants  and  ex- 
plorers began  to  find  their  way  into  all  parts  of  the  world. 
France  during  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  had  also  made  great 
progress  in  foreign  trade  and  colonization.  France  and  Eng- 
land were  now,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
great  rival  powers,  and  the  trial  of  their  strength  was  to  be 
made  in  India  and  America. 

French  and  English  in  India.  We  have  seen  how  the 
East  India  Company  was  founded  near  the  end  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  (p.  199).  It  now  had  trading  posts  or  forts  at  Surat, 
Bombay,  and  Madras,  on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of 
India,  and  at  Calcutta,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges.  The 
Dutch,  the  Portuguese,  and  the  French  also  held  trading 
posts  and  were  ambitious  of  power  in  India.  While  the  first 
two  nations  wished  only  to  trade,  the  French  were  eager  to  get 
control  of  the  country,  which  as  yet  was  almost  entirely  under 
the  government  of  native  princes. 

About  the  time  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (p.  292),  the 
French  governor  of  Pondicherry,  Dupleix,  leagued  with  some 
of  the  native  princes  who  were  opposed  to  the  English,  cap- 
tured Arcot,  the  capital  of  the  Carnatic,  and  made  his  own 
candidate  the  nabob,  or  king,  of  that  province.  He  drilled 
the  Sepoys,  or  native  soldiers,  in  the  French  fashion,  and  be- 
came so  powerful  that  the  Mogul  emperor  at  Delhi  appointed 
the  Frenchman  governor  of  the  whole  southwestern  coast.  It 
looked  as  though  the  French,  and  not  the  British,  were  des- 
tined to  rule  India. 

Robert  Clive  was  a  clerk  in  the  offices  of  the  English  East 
India  Company  at  Madras.  He  was  only  twenty-one  years  of 


300 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1748 


age,  but  absolutely  fearless.  He  once  fought  a  duel  with  an 
officer  whom  he  accused  of  cheating  at  cards.  His  antagonist, 
unhurt  by  Olive's  bullet,  stepped  up  and,  holding  a  pistol  at 
his  head,  demanded  an  apology.  "  Fire  away,"  said  Clive,  "  I 
said  you  cheated,  and  I  still  say  it."  The  officer  did  not 
fire.  Clive  soon  headed  a  small  band  of  English  against  the 
French  headquarters  at  Pondicherry,  but  failed  to  take  it. 
After  raising  a  force  of  500  men,  natives  and  English,  he 

attacked  Arcot,  a  city 
of  a  hundred  thousand 
people  under  French 
control.  As  he  ap- 
proached the  town  a 
terrible  thunderstorm 
came  on.  The  super- 
stitious natives  were 
afraid  to  fight  during 
the  storm,  and  the 
city  surrendered  with- 
out striking  a  blow. 

Siege  of  Arcot 
(1751).  The  French, 
however,  soon  sur- 
rounded Arcot  with 
an  army  of  ten  thou- 
sand men,  and  things 
WAR  ELEPHANT.  looked  desperate  for 

the  two  hundred  English  within  the  walls.  For  weeks  they 
held  out,  until  there  was  little  food  left. 

On  a  great  festival  day,  the  natives  led  by  the  French 
made  a  fierce  attack  on  the  walls.  Elephants  whose  'heads 
were  covered  with  iron  plates  butted  against  the  gates.  If 
they  could  not  take  the  city  on  this  day,  it  was  certain  they 
would  not  try  again.  Clive  urged  his  men  to  fight.  He 


1756]  GEORGE  II.  301 

trained  a  piece  of  artillery  on  a  raft  which  was  crossing  the 
moat  before  the  town  and  killed  all  the  men  on  it.  At  night 
the  army  gave  up  the  siege  and  fled.  They  thought  the  man 
who  could  defy  thunderstorms  and  holy  days  was  in  league 
with  the  devil,  or  perhaps  with  God  himself.  Olive  had 
broken  the  alliance  between  the  natives  and  the  French,  and 
had  saved  the  English  power  in  the  Carnatic. 

The  "Black  Hole  of  Calcutta"  (1756).  North  of  the 
British  town  of  Calcutta,  in  the  city  of  Murshidabad,  lived  a 
cruel  and  dissolute  young  prince,  Surajah  Dowlah.  He 
thought  that  the  English  had  great  stores  of  treasure  in  their 
trading  station  at  Calcutta,  and  led  a  great  army  to  capture 
them.  After  he  had  bombarded  the  town  for  two  days,  the 
little  company  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  were  forced  to 
surrender.  The  sura  j  ah  was  dissatisfied  at  finding  only  fifty 
thousand  rupees,  and  thought  that  the  English  had  buried 
their  money  in  some  part  of  the  town.  To  secure  his  pris- 
oners for  the  night,  he  drove  them  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet 
into  a  small  dungeon  which  had  but  two  small  windows.  In 
the  hot  Indian  climate  of  midsummer,  it  would  have  been 
torture  for  a  single  prisoner  to  spend  the  night  in  such  a 
place.  For  a  hundred  and  forty-six  it  meant,  for  the  larger 
number,  death  with  all  the  agonies  of  heat,  thirst,  and  suffo- 
cation. They  struggled  to  the  windows  to  get  the  air,  and 
trod  to  death  their  companions  who  had  fallen.  "As  the 
hours  passed,"  says  Macaulay,  "the  prisoners  grew  mad  with 
despair ;  they  trampled  upon,  and  fought  one  another  for  the 
pittance  of  water  which  was  allowed  them ;  they  raved,  prayed, 
blasphemed,  and  called  upon  the  guards  to  fire  upon  them. 
At  length  the  tumult  died  away  in  low  moans  and  quick 
gasping  for  breath.  When  daylight  came  and  the  dungeon 
was  opened,  the  floor  was  heaped  with  the  mutilated  bodies 
of  the  dead.  Of  the  whole  number  only  twenty-three  were 
alive,  and  those  so  changed  that  their  own  mothers  would  not 


302  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1756 

have  known  them."  The  one  woman  among  the  prisoners 
survived. 

The  Battle  of  Plassey.  It  was  two  months  before  the 
news  of  the  "  Black  Hole  "  came  to  Madras.  Olive,  after  a 
visit  to  England,  had  now  returned  to  Madras,  and  to  him  was 
given  the  task  of  vengeance.  He  went  to  Calcutta  with  three 
thousand  men.  The  surajah  had  fifty  thousand.  The  battle 
of  Plassey,  fought  near  Murshidabad,  the  surajah's  capital, 
in  June,  1757,  settled  the  strife.  Part  of  the  surajah's  army 
deserted,  and  the  remainder,  30,000,  was  totally  defeated.  The 
surajah  was  murdered  by  his  own  general,  whom  Clive  placed 
upon  the  throne  of  Murshidabad.  English  supremacy  was 
thus  firmly  established  in  the  basin  of  the  Ganges,  the  richest 
territory  in  India.  To  Eobert  Clive,  more  than  any  other 
man,  Great  Britain  owes  her  Indian  empire. 

French  and  English  in  America.  French  colonies  had 
been  established  along  the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  They 
stretched  around  the  English  colonies  like  a  great  bow  of 
which  the  string  was  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  vast  inland 
region  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Mississippi  had  been 
entered  only  by  a  few  bold  hunters  and  traders.  Before  1750 
it  became  evident  that  a  struggle  must  soon  come  between 
the  French  and  the  English  for  the  control  of  this  interior 
region. 

The  Ohio  Land  Company  was  formed  in  1749,  composed 
of  wealthy  Virginians,  to  whom  King  George  had  granted 
a  half  million  acres  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  Four  years 
later,  some  surveyors  and  soldiers  were  sent  to  build  a  fort 
there  and  to  survey  and  mark  off  the  claims  of  the  company. 
But  they  were  driven  off  by  the  French,  who  completed  their 
fort  and  named  it  Fort  Duquesne. 

The  Virginians  sent  Washington  with  a  small  force  the 
next  year  to  recapture  the  fort.  He  surprised  a  company 


EASTERN  XORTH  AMERICA 


in  1751 

AT  THE  BEGINNING  OF 

THE  FRENCH  AND  INDIA*  WAR 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


303 


304  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1754 

of  the  French  in  the  woods  and  defeated  them,  but  later  was 
compelled  to  surrender  to  superior  numbers. 

General  Braddock  was  sent  to  America  the  next  spring  and 
again  took  the  road  to  Fort  Duquesne  with  a  force  of  1,500 
men.  A  few  miles  from,  the  fort  he  was  badly  defeated  by  a 
smaller  force  of  French  and  Indians. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  began  in  Europe  in  1756,  the 
year  following  Braddock's  defeat.  Austria,  France,  and  Bus- 
sia  joined  against  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  George  II. 
made  an  alliance  with  Frederick  and  furnished  him  money  and 
soldiers. 

Thomas  Pelham,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  became  George's 
prime  minister  in  1754.  While  he  could  control  votes  in  Par- 
liament, he  could  not  manage  a  war. 
The  only  way  he  had  of  making  ap- 
pointments was  to  sell  them  to  his 
friends.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war 
the  French  had  slipped  quietly  over 
and  captured  the  island  of  Minorca  (p. 
164).  Admiral  Byng,  whom  New- 
castle had  sent  to  defend  it,  considered 
the  French  too  strong  for  him  and  with- 
drew. The  people  were  enraged  at  the 
WILLIAM  PITT.  incapacity  of  Newcastle  and  at  the  fail- 
ures in  both  Europe  and  America.  To  satisfy  the  popular 
feeling,  Byng  was  arrested  for  cowardice  and,  after  trial,  was 
shot  on  the  quarter-deck  of  his  ship.  A  Frenchman  wittily 
remarked  that  the  "  English  were  accustomed  to  shoot  one 
admiral  to  encourage  the  rest."  Newcastle,  fearing  that  his 
head  might  be  wanted  also,  resigned. 

William  Pitt,  the  greatest  Englishman  of  his  time,  was 
now  put  at  the  head  of  affairs.  He  was  one  of  the  young  men 
at  whom  Robert  Walpole  had  sneered  for  opposing  the  buy- 
ing of  votes.  He  was  one  man  that  Walpole  could  not  buy. 


1759]  GEORGE  II.  .    305 

He  had  become  famous  in  Parliament"  on  account  of  his  power 
in  speaking.  His  influence  was  felt  throughout  the  country. 
"  No  one  ever  talked  with  him/'  said  one  man,  "  who  did  not 
feel  himself  better  and  braver  afterward/'  Frederick  the 
Great,  when  he  heard  of  Pitt's  appointment,  exclaimed,  "  Eng- 
land has  at  last  produced  a  man!" 

Pitt,  however,  did  not  control  many  votes  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  Before  long  he  and  Newcastle  formed  a  coali- 
tion. Pitt  was  to  manage  the  wars,  and  Newcastle  was  to 
do  the  bribing  and  keep  the  support  of  Parliament.  Pitt 
had  great  confidence  in  Frederick.  He  sent  him  20,000  Eng- 
lish soldiers  and  large  amounts  of  money.  Frederick  was  the 
greatest  soldier  of  the  age,  and  kept  the  French  so  busy  on  his 
western  frontier  that  they  could  spare  few  soldiers  for  Amer- 
ica. At  Minden,  one  of  the  many  battles  of  this  war,  six 
English  regiments,  through  some  mistake,  were  ordered  to 
attack  ten  thousand  French  cavalry.  Though  the  cavalry 
charged  again  and  again,  they  were  hurled  back  defeated,  and 
a  victory  was  won  that  was  entirely  unexpected.  Said  the 
French  commander,  (:  I  have  seen  what  I  never  thought  pos- 
sible, a  single  line  of  infantry  break  through  three  lines  of 
cavalry  ranked  in  order  of  battle  and  tumble  them  to  ruin." 

The  French  and  Indian  War  in  America  had  been  going 
on  at  the  same  time  with  the  wars  in  India  and  Europe.  In 
the  same  year  that  Sura j ah  Dowlah  thrust  the  English  prison- 
ers into  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  Montcalm,  the  French 
commander  in  Canada,  captured  Fort  Oswego  in  New  York. 
Two  years  later  (1758),  with  Pitt  in  power,  the  tide  turned; 
the  English  at  last  took  Fort  Duquesne.  The  year  1759  saw 
the  battle  of  Minden  and  the  capture  of  Quebec  by  General 
Wolfe. 

The  secret  of  Pitt's  success  was  his  knowing  how  to  choose 
the  right  man  for  the  work  in  hand.  When  he  sent  General 
Wolfe  to  America,  it  was  not  because  he  wanted  to  get  his 

NlVEE  - 


306 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1759 


vote,  but  because  he  knew  "Wolfe  could  take  Quebec  if  any 
one  could. 

The  Capture  of  Quebec  decided  the  war.  Wolfe  took 
his  army  there  on  a  fleet  that  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence. 
But  the  city  stands  on  a  lofty  rock  and  the  river  is  bounded 
by  high,  steep  cliffs.  It  was  apparently  impossible  to  get  an 

army  near  enough  to  the 
city  to  begin  the  battle. 
Wolfe  sailed  up  and 
down  the  river  and  at  last 
discovered  a  path  begin- 
ning at  the  river's  edge 
and  winding  upward 
among  the  rocks  until  it 
reached  the  Plains  of 
Abraham  above.  One 
dark  night  he  placed  his 
soldiers  in  boats  and  took 
them  safely  down  to  the 
place  where  the  path  be- 
gan. A  long  line  of  sol- 
diers began  to  climb  up- 
ward. All  the  night  they 
toiled  up,  and  when  day 
broke  the  French  general 
looked  out  upon  an  Eng- 
lish army  before  the 
walls  of  Quebec.  Mont- 
calm  threw  open  the 
gates  and  led  his  troops 
against  the  foe.  A  desperate  battle  was  fought  in  which 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe  were  mortally  wounded.  As  the  Eng- 
lish general  lay  on  the  ground,  he  heard  some  one  cry,  "  They 
run,  they  run  I" 


WOLFE  MONUMENT  AT  QUEBEC. 


1760]  GEORGE  II.  307 

"Who  run?"  said  he,  lifting  his  head. 

"  The  French/'  was  the  answer. 

"  Then,"  said  he,  "  I  die  happy." 

The  Treaty  of  Paris,  signed  in  1763,  made  this  year  the 
most  important  in  the  whole  history  of  the  British  Empire; 
for  it  gave  her  control  of  India  and  half  of  North  America, 
and  established  her  as  "  Mistress  of  the  Seas."  France  was 
compelled  to  give  to  England  Canada  and  the  territory  east 
of  the  Mississippi.  She  agreed  also  to  keep  no  military  force 
in  India,  keeping  only  the  right  to  trade,  and  lost  besides  four 
of  her  West  India  islands. 

George  II.  Died  in  the  height  of  England's  prosperity 
(1760),  when  the  news  of  victories  was  so  constant  that 
Horace  Walpole  said,  "  We  must  ask  every  morning  what  new 
victory  has  been  won,  for  fear  we  may  miss  hearing  of  one." 
His  eldest  son  having  died  before  him,  the  throne  descended 
to  his  grandson. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  war  with  France? 

2.  In  what  way  did  these  wars  grow  out  of  trade? 

3.  Compare   Pitt's  rule  with  that  of  Newcastle. 

4.  In  what  ways  did  England  acquire  possessions  in  India? 

5.  How  do  you  explain  the  English  victories?     How  did  they  affect 

the  position  of  England  as  a  commercial  nation? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  ABCOT    AND    PLASSEY.     Church,    Stories    from    English    History; 

Henty,  With  Clive  in  India. 
?..  WOLFE   AT   QUEBEC.     Church,   Stories   from   English   History,   pp. 

573-580;   Fitchett,   Deeds  that   Won  the  Empire,  pp.   13-26. 

3.  WILLIAM   PITT.     Mowry,  First  Steps  in  the  History  of  England, 

Ch.  XXII. ;  Rosebery,  Pitt. 

4.  THE  BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA.     Macaulay,  Essay  on  Clive. 

5.  ROBERT  CLIVE.     Macaulay,  Essay  on  Clive;  Henty,  With  Clive  in 

India. 


XI.    THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  (CONTINUED). 

A.    THE  Loss  OP  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES. 
George  III.,  1760-1820. 

The  New  King  had  the  advantage  of  not  being  a  for- 
eigner.    "Born  and  educated  in  this  land/'  said  George  in 
his  first  speech  to   Parliament,   "I  glory  in  the  name  of 
Briton."     His  tutor,  Lord  Bute,  a  Scotchman,  had  educated 
him  'to  believe  that  an  English  king  ought  to  have  far  greater 
power  than  his  grandfather  had  enjoyed. 
His  mother,  too,  disliked  the  party  rule 
that    had    grown    up    in    England,    and 
would  say  to  him,  "  George,  be  king ! " 
meaning  that  he  should  take  the  direction 
of   affairs  himself.     Pitt   was   compelled 
to  resign,  because  he  could  not  persuade 
the  Cabinet  to  declare  war  on  Spain  in 
GEOHGB  in          1761.     Newcastle  also  was  soon  induced 
to   resign,  leaving  Bute  prime  minister. 
But  Bute  became  so  distasteful  to  the  Parliament  because  he 
was  a  Scot,  and  because  he  did  not  believe  in  the  old  system 
of  bribery,  that  he  too  soon  resigned. 

The  King's  Plan  was  to  break  down  the  power  that  the 
Whigs  had  had,  and  to  choose  his  Cabinet  from  both  parties 
if  he  saw  fit  to  do  so.  The  Tories  had  lost  their  influ- 
ence because  they  had  favored  the  Pretender  and  opposed  the 
House  of  Hanover;  but  now  that  no  Stuart  could  any  longer 
hope  for  the  throne,  they  had  become  as  loyal  as  the  Whigs, 
and  were  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  government. 

308 


1785] 


GEORGE  III. 


309 


George  Grenville  became  prime  minister  in  1766.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  famous  Stamp  Act,  the  first  at- 
tempt made  by  Parliament  to  raise  money  by  .taxing  the 
American  colonies. 

The  Growth  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies  had  been  steady 
and  rapid.  Their  population  was  nearly  three  millions. 
They  had  a  flourishing  commerce.  Tobacco,  rice,  indigo, 
and  the  products  of  the  pine  forests,  were  the  exports  from 
the  South;  iron,  fish,  rum,  lumber,  and  ships,  from  the 
North.  Agriculture  was  profitable.  By  law  they  were  al- 
lowed to  trade  only  with  Great  Britain, 
but  they  had  a  large  commerce  with 
Holland  and  France,  carried  on  through 
the  West  Indian  possessions  of  these 
countries.  The  governments  of  the 
colonies  were  much  alike.  In  every 
one  there  was  a  body  of  men  elected  by 
the  people,  called  usually  the  Assembly. 
This  body  had  the  sole  power  to  levy 
taxes.  The  governors  were  elected  by 
the  people  in  two  colonies,  appointed  by 
the  king  in  eight,  and  by  the  proprietor 
in  the  three  colonies  that  still  had  pro- 
prietors. 

The  colonists  had  learned  to  fight 
during  the  colonial  wars.  More  than 
forty  thousand  of  them  had  become 
experienced  soldiers,  and  many  were  ex- 
cellent leaders.  Since  the  French  colonies  had  been  con- 
quered, they  had  no  longer  a  dangerous  white  foe  on  their 
borders,  and  they  did  not  feel  the  need  of  England's  protec- 
tion so  much  as  before. 

The  Stamp  Act.  England  had  a  large  public  debt.  Since 
William  III.  founded  the  Bank  of  England,  the  country  had 


BRITISH  SOLDIER. 


310  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1765 

been  borrowing  money.  The  last  war  had  been  especially 
expensive,  because  so  much  money  had  been  given  to  Fred- 
erick. Grenville  said  that  this  war  had  been  fought  oiT; 
account  of  the  American  colonies,  and  that  they  oughFTol 
pay  for  it,  or  at  least  ought  to  support  part  of  the  British 
army.  The  colonists  argued  that  they  had  furnished  nearly 
all  the  soldiers  who  fought  in  America,  had  paid  more 
than  their  share  of  the  expense,  and  did  not  need  the  protec- 
tion of  a  British  army.  But  Grenville  had  the  Stamp  Act 
passed  (1765),  which  said  that  all  newspapers,  and  law 
papers,  such  as  wills,  marriage  licenses,  deeds,  and  leases, 
must  be  written  or  printed  on  stamped  paper  purchased 
from  the  British  government.  The  money  thus  raised  was 
to  support  British  soldiers  stationed  in  the  colonies.  But 
the  colonists  drove  away  the  stamp  agents  and  resisted  the 
tax.  They  said  they  sent  no  members  to  Parliament  and 
therefore  Parliament  had  no  right  to  tax  them. 

In  England  the  colonists  had  many  friends.  For  cen- 
turies the  English  people  had  fought  kings  for  the  sole 
right  of  taxing  themselves,  and  should  they  now  refuse  that 
right  to  the  English  in  America?  Among  these  friends, 
William  Pitt  was  the  leader.  He  made  an  eloquent  speech 
in  favor  of  repealing  the  Stamp  Act.  "  Taxation  and  repre- 
sentation/' he  said,  "  go  hand  in  hand."  He  argued  that  the 
country  would  lose  the  trade  of  the  Americans,  and  perhaps 
the  colonies  too,  if  it  tried  to  tax  them.  Most  Englishmen 
applauded  him  when  he  said,  "I  rejoice  that  America  has 
resisted;  three  millions  of  people,  so  dead  to  all  the  feelings 
of  liberty  as  willingly  to  submit  to  be  slaves,  would  be  fit 
instruments  to  make  slaves  of  all  the  rest." 

Parliament  finally  repealed  the  Stamp  Act,  and  Grenville, 
having  quarreled  with  the  king,  resigned. 

A  New  Tax  was  imposed  on  the  colonies  in  1767  at 
the  suggestion  of  Charles  Townshend,  who  had  become  one 


1774]  GEORGE  III.  311 

of  the  "king's  friends/'  as  those  men  were  now  called  who 
supported  George  in  his  efforts  to  "be  king/'  This  was  an 
import  tax  on  glass,  paints,  paper,  and  tea.  The  colonists 
had  always  admitted  the  right  of  Parliament  to  regulate 
trade  in  the  British  Empire  by  means  of  such  duties  on  im- 
ports, but  they  saw  that  the  object  of  Townshend's  tax  was 
not  to  regulate  trade,  but  to  raise  money,  and  they  were 
already  angry  over  the  Stamp  Act.  They  refused,  therefore, 
to  buy  any  British  goods  till  the  tax  should  be  repealed.  The 
English  merchants  then  urged  Parliament  to  repeal  the  tax, 
and  it  soon  did  so,  on  all  the  articles  except  tea. 

An  English  company  now  sent  several  shiploads  of  tea  to 
America,  but  the  colonists  refused  to  allow  it  to  be  landed, 
and  when  there  was  no  other  way  to  keep  the  tea  out  of 
Boston,  a  party  of  men  went  on  board  the  tea  ships  at  night, 
and  threw  the  tea  into  the  harbor  (1773). 

The  Port  of  Boston  was  now  ordered  closed  until  the 
people  should  pay  for  the  tea  that  they  had  destroyed.  Parlia- 
ment also  took  away  from  Massachusetts  some  of  the  rights 
given  to  her  by  her  charter,  and  it  sent  soldiers  to  Boston 
and  compelled  the  people  to  support  them. 

The  English  People,  it  must  be  remembered,  did  not 
want  such  laws  made.  The  House  of  Commons  at  this  time 
did  not  truly  represent  the  people.  There  were  only  one 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  people,  of  a  population  of  eight 
millions,  that  had  the  right  to  vote.  The  Tories  and  the 
king's  friends  bought  up  the  elections  just  as  Walpole  and 
the  Whigs  had  done;  and  if  a  member  got  into  the  House 
who  would  not  support  them  they  made  it  very  unpleasant 
for  him. 

The  Case  of  John  Wilkes  shows  the  situation.  The 
people  of  Middlesex  had  elected  him;  but,  as  he  had  con- 
demned the  policy  of  the  king,  the  Tories  in  the  House 
voted  that  his  opponent  was  elected,  although  this  opponent 


312 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1764 


had  received  only  a  few  votes.  This  led  to  riots  all  over 
England-  The  people  of  London  declared  that  the  House 
of  Commons  no  longer  represented  the  people.  Many  large 
towns,  like  Manchester  and  Birmingham,,  had  no  representa- 
tives at  all,  while  many  small  towns,  called  "rotten  boroughs/' 
had  two  each.  When  Englishmen  told  the  Americans  that 
they  were  as  well  represented  in  Parliament  as  many  cities 
in  England,  James  Otis  replied,  "  Don't  talk  to  me  about  those 
towns !  If  they  are  not  represented,  they  ought  to  be."  And 
the  Whigs  in  England  applauded. 

The  Arguments  on  Both  Sides  were  something  like  this. 
The  king  and  the  Tories  held  that  the  colonies  belonged  to 
the  crown,  which  had  rightfully  seized  heathen  lands  and 
given  them  to  certain  individuals  and  com- 
panies, with  the  understanding  that  they 
could  do  nothing  contrary  to  the  king's  will. 
The  king  had  the  right  to  make  any  laws 
he  chose  for  them.  "  The  only  use  of  colo- 
nies," said  one  Englishman,  "  is  to  buy  our 
goods  and  to  furnish  freight  for  our  ships." 
The  colonies  had  no  rights  except  those 
that  the  king  chose  to  give  them. 

The  colonists  claimed  that  America  was 
an  expansion  of  the  mother  country,  and 
had  the  same  rights;  that  it  was  the  right 
of  English  people  to  be  taxed  only  by  their 
A  MINUTEMAN.      OW11  representatives. 

In  England,  the  king  had  at  last  got  the  government 
entirely  into  his  own  hands.  Lord  North,  who  became  prime 
minister  in  1770,  did  exactly  as  the  king  wished.  From  this 
time  until  the  close  of  the  War  of  the  Eevolution,  George  was 
really  King  of  England. 

Beginning  of  the  American  Revolution.  Preparations 
for  war  went  on  rapidly  in  the  colonies  after  the  port  of 


1780]  GEORGE  III.  313 

Boston  was  closed.  Companies  of  "  minutemen  "  were 
drilled  in  every  town,  and  stores  of  ammunition  were  col- 
lected. In  April,  1775,  the  British,  general  in  Boston  sent 
some  soldiers  to  destroy  the  military  stores  at  Concord;  on 
their  way  they  fired  upon  some  minutemen  at  Lexington ;  and 
at  Concord  and  on  their  way  back  they  were  attacked  so  fierce- 
ly that  they  were  saved  from  destruction  only  by  prompt  re- 
enforcements.  The  British  were  now  besieged  in  Boston  and 
in  June  was  fought  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  in  which  part ; 
of  the  besieging  force  twice  repulsed  a  British  attack,  butT 
was  finally  driven  back.  The. siege  continued  and  the  next 
year  the  British  were  compelled  to  leave  the  city. 

Declaration  of  Independence.  Meanwhile  a  congress  of 
delegates  from  all  the  colonies  had  met  in  Philadelphia  (May, 
1775),  voted  money  for  war,  and  elected  George  Washington 
commander  in  chief  of  the  Continental  Army.  In  July,  1776, 
all  the  colonies  having  voted  in  favor  of  separation  from  the 
British  Empire,  Congress  adopted  a  formal  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

War  in  the  Middle  States  began  in  1776.  The  British, 
under  Howe,  seized  New  York  in  the  summer,  after  defeating 
Washington  in  the  battle  of  Brooklyn ;  and  drove  the  Ameri- 
can army  beyond  the  Delaware.  The  next  year  it  was  planned 
that  the  British  general  Burgoyne  should  come  down  from 
Canada,  and  that  Howe  should  ascend  the  Hudson  to  meet 
him.  This  river  was  to  be  held,  and  the  New  England  colo- 
nies thus  cut  off  from  the  rest.  But  Howe  decided  first  to 
capture  Philadelphia;  and  Burgoyne,  when  he  reached  Sara- 
toga, was  surrounded  and  forced  to  surrender. 

The  War  in  the  South  was  the  last  stage  of  the  Eevolu- 
tion.  The  British,  defeated  in  New  England  and  in  New 
York,  now  aimed  to  regain  the  Southern  colonies,  where  the 
Tory  party  was  strong.  At  first  they  were  successful,  and 
for  a  time  there  were  again  royal  governors  of  Georgia  and 


314 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1780 


South  Carolina,  J,n  1780,  however,  a  strong  force  of  British 
and  Tories  was  destroyed  in  the  battle  of  Kings  Mountain; 
and  after  many  more  fierce  fights  the  British  were  driven 
out  again. 

France  Aids  the  United  States.     Meanwhile,  France  had 
been    carefully    watching   the    struggle   of    the    Americans. 


THE   SURRENDER  OF  CORNWALLIS. 

When  she  received  the  news  of  Burgoyne's  surrender,  she 
decided  that  the  time  had  come  to  get  revenge  for  her  loss 
of  Canada.  In  1778  she  made  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the 
colonies,  and  sent  fleets,  armies,  and  money  to  help  them. 
The  next  year  Spain  also  declared  war  against  England, 
hoping  to  get  back  Gibraltar  and  Florida,  which  England 
had  acquired  in  1763.  War  also  broke  out  in  India,  at 
Haidarabad  and  Mysore  (map,  p.  298)  ;  in  western  Africa, 
and  in  the  West  Indies.  Thus  not  only  was  the  alliance 


GEORGE  III.  315 

of  France  with  America  directly  helpful  to  the  Americans, 
but  England,  being  obliged  to  fight  everywhere  at  once,  could 
not  send  so  many  men  to  America  as  she  otherwise  might. 
More  than  300,000  British  soldiers  were  on  duty  in  various 
parts  of  the  world ;  but  when  Washington  forced  the  surrender 
of  the  British  army  under  Cornwallis,  at  Yorktown  (1781), 
though  it  numbered  only  7,000,  England  could  not  replace 
the  loss.  When  Lord  North  received  the  news,  he  threw  up 
his  hands  and  cried,  "  It  is  all  over,"  and  gave  up  his  office. 
George  III.  announced  to  the  House  of  Lords  in  December, 
1782,  that  he  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United 
States. 

Edmund  Burke  and  William  Pitt  had  urged  Lord  North 
and  the  king  to  repeal  the  laws  against  Massachusetts.  But 
Pitt  died  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1778,  and  Burke 
made  his  great  "  Conciliation  Speech  "  in  vain.  "  It  is  in- 
tolerable," said  Fox,  another  distinguished  member  of  Par- 
liament, referring  to  Lord  North,  "that  it  should  be  in  the 
power  of  one  blockhead  to  do  so  much  mischief."  But  the 
mischief  was  done. 

The  Treaty  of  Versailles,  made  in*1783,  acknowledged 
the  independence  of  the  United  States.  Spain  got  back 
Florida  and  Minorca;  France  the  most  of  her  settlements 
in  India,  Africa,  and  the  West  Indies.  England  thus  lost 
more  than  she  had  gained  under  the  splendid  rule  of  William 
Pitt,  which  had  resulted  in  triumph  at  Quebec  and  Plassey. 
George  had  realized  his  desire  to  "be  king,"  but  had  lost  a 
large  part  of  his  dominions. 

Religious  Riots  broke  out  in  England  near  the  close  of 
the  American  war.  In  the  time  of  William  III.,  when  there 
was  feax  of  a  Stuart  invasion,  many  unjust  laws  were  made 
against  Catholics.  The  celebration  of  Catholic  worship  was 
condemned  as  high  treason.  Catholics  were  not  allowed  to 
inherit  or  to  acquire  property.  These  laws  were  repealed 


316  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1780 

in  England  in  1778,  but  Protestant  societies  were  formed  to 
secure  their  reenactment.  A  half-crazy  religious  fanatic, 
named  George  Gordon,  led  50,000  men  to  petition  Parliament 
to  restore  the  laws,  but  the  petitioners  soon  became  a  lawless 
mob.  They  began  to  burn  Catholic  chapels;  then  they 
burned  other  chapels;  finally  they  burned  and  plundered 
whatever  they  pleased.  Prisons  were  broken  open,  and  the 
prisoners  released.  Every  man  who  wanted  to  be  safe  had 
to  wear  the  blue  Protestant  ribbon  and  chalk  "  No  Popery  " 
on  his  door.  The  government  foolishly  allowed  the  mob  to 
go  on  unchecked  for  eight  days.  Lord  Amherst  was  then 
ordered  to  attack  the  rioters.  A  few  volleys  of  musketry 
and  a  bayonet  charge  soon  cleared  the  streets,  but  five  hundred 
of  the  mob  were  killed  or  wounded.  >  v 

In  India,  the  East  India  Company  partly  made  good  the' 
losses  that  England  suffered  in  America.  In  1772  Warren 
Hastings  was  made  governor  of  Bengal,  and  two  years  later 
the  first  governor-general  of  British  India.  He  established 
the  rule  of  the  company  in  Bengal,  defeated  the  Mahrattas, 
or  native  Hindus,  and  conquered  the  able  Mohammedan 
leader,  Hyder  Ali,  in  the  Carnatic. 

To  raise  money  for  these  wars,  Hastings  plundered  some 
native  princes  and  committed  other  acts  for  which  he  was 
impeached  and  tried  before  the  House  of  Lords.  Some  of 
the  greatest  English  statesmen  and  lawyers  of  the  time, 
Burke,  Fox,  and  Sheridan,  made  speeches  against  him.  But 
the  good  work  he  had  done  towards  securing  India  for  Eng- 
land was  an  excuse  for  all  his  faults,  and  he  was  acquitted. 

A  Bill  for  the  Government  of  India  was  made  a  law  in 
1784.  A  trading  company  had  accidentally  come  into  pos- 
session of  a  part  of  India,  and  was  ruling  over  many  millions 
of  people.  The  appointment  of  the  governor-general  was  now 
transferred  to  the  Cabinet,  but  the  details  of  the  government 
were  left  to  the  company,  subject  to  the  will  of  a  board  of 


1784]  GEORGE  III.  317 

control  composed  of  the  king's  ministers.  The  company  was 
to  keep  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  trade.  In  this  way 
India  continued  to  be  governed  for  many  years. 

When  England  Lost  the  Thirteen  Colonies,  many 
statesmen  thought  that  she  would  never  be  so  great  a  nation 
as  before;  but  the  separation  proved  to  be  an  advantage  to 
both  countries.  England's  foolish  laws  for  restricting  the 
trade  and  manufactures  of  the  colonies  were  wiped  away  by 
their  independence.  But  now  that  the  colonies  were  free, 
they  began  to  buy  more  English  goods  than  ever,  because  they 
had  more  money  with  which  to  buy  them ;  and  England  found 
to  her  great  surprise  that  she  made  more  money  out  of  the  new 
republic  than  she  had  made  out  of  the  old  colonies. 

Adam  Smith,  a  Scotchman,  published  in  1776  a  book 
called  "The  Wealth  of  Nations."  This  book  had  a  great 
influence  in  reforming  English  notions  about  commerce,  both 
with  her  colonies  and  with  foreign  countries.  English  people 
had  always  thought  that  the  more  gold  and  silver  they  could 
keep  in  the  country,  the  richer  they  were.  But  Smith  proved 
that  the  wealth  of  a  country  does  not  depend  so  much  on 
money  as  upon  the  number  of  sheep  and  the  bushels  of  grain 
produced,  and  upon  the  number  of  useful  things  manufac- 
tured. 

People  had  always  thought  that  it  was  a  loss  for  the  na- 
tion to  buy  goods  in  France,  that  the  French  could  make 
more  cheaply  than  the  English.  The  English  government 
would  not  allow  the  Irish  to  sell  linen  and  woolen  goods  in 
England,  because  the  Irish  sold  them  cheaper  than  the 
English  people  could  make  them.  Adam  Smith  said  that  the 
country  should  make  the  things  that  it  could  make  most 
cheaply;  that  it  should  buy  linen  in  Ireland,  and  silk  in 
France,  if  these  goods  were  cheaper  there  than  in  England. 
If  England  could  make  iron  and  steel,  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  at  less  expense  than  other  countries,  she  should  make 


318  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1783 

these  things.  This,  he  said,  would  make  every  country 
richer. 

William  Pitt  the  Younger,  who  became  the  king's  chief 
minister  in  1783,  thought  there  was  much  truth  in  what 
Smith  said.  He  believed  that  a  nation  that  keeps  its  cus- 
tomers poor,  as  England  had  done,  can  not  sell  them  so  many 
goods.  He  made  a  new  treaty  with  France,  lowering  the 
rates  o^"  duty  so  that  there  could  be  trade  between  the  two 
countries.  The  duty  on  French  goods  had  been  so  high  that 
English  merchants  could  not  buy  them.  This  had  led  to  a 
vast  amount  of  smuggling,  which  was  very  hard  to  stop. 
When  the  duty  was  made  low,  the  smuggling  stopped  and 
the  government  began  to  get  an  income,  because  merchants 
could  now  buy  the  goods  and  afford  to  pay  the  duty.  A 
similar  arrangement  was  made  with  the  other  countries  of 
Europe,  and  with  the  West  Indies.  An  attempt  was  made 
also  to  take  off  all  the  duties  on  Irish  goods,  but  the  English 
merchants  and  manufacturers  made  such  a  strong  opposi- 
tion that  it  could  not  be  done.  The  Irish  Parliament  had 
agreed  to  the  plan  of  free  trade  between  the  two  countries; 
but  when  the  British  Parliament  proposed  a  half-way 
measure,  the  Irish  rejected  it. 

Two  Great  Evils  now  needed  to  be  cured.  The  old  sys- 
tem of  bribery,  by  which  the  king  and  a  few  political  leaders 
kept  control  of  the  government,  ought  to  be  done  away  with ; 
and  more  people  ought  to  have  the  right  to  vote.  As  it  was, 
a  few  people  chose  the  House  of  Commons.  Since  it  was 
easier  to  buy  a  few  men  than  to  buy  many,  the  Cabinet 
did  not  wish  a  change.  At  one  time  in  Great  Britain,  thirty- 
two  men  had  the  power  to  chuose  seventy-two  members.  In 
the  Irish  Parliament,  also,  twenty-five  men  controlled  one 
hundred  and  sixteen  seats,  and  the  British  ministers  one 
hundred  and  eighty-six. 

In  such  a  state  of  affairs  the  people  had  little  power.     They 


1807]  GEORGE  III.  319 

were  beginning  now  to  demand  a  change.  Pitt  proposed  to 
take  away  the  representatives  from  the  "  rotten  boroughs  "  in 
Great  Britain  and  give  them  to  the  larger  towns;  but  the 
Parliament  would  not  listen  to  such  a  proposal  and  it  was 
not  done  until  1832. 

Prohibition  of  the  Slave  Trade.  The  evils  of  the  slave 
trade  also  began  to  receive  attention.  The  Quakers  had  pe- 
titioned against  it  in  1783.  A  young  man  named  Thomas 
Clarkson  had  written  a  book  describing  the  horrible  treatment 
"iiat  the  slaves  received.  It  is  estimated  that  as  many  as 
50,000  were  seized  in  Africa  every  year,  and  carried  off  to  be 
sold  in  America.  They  were  crowded  into  ships,  chained  and 
packed  away  on  shelves  like  merchandise.  A  bill  to  prohibit 
the  slave  trade  was  passed  by  the  Commons  three  times,  but 
each  time  the  House  of  Lords  refused  to  pass  it.  Finally  in 
1807  the  slave  trade  was  prohibited.  Success  was  largely  due 
to  William  Wilberforce,  a  member  of  Parliament  who  devoted 
his  whole  life  to  the  cause  of  the  slave.  The  law  did  not 
abolish  slavery;  it  only  said  that  the  buying  of  slaves  in 
Africa  must  stop. 

These  Measures  of  Reform  began  with  the  people,  whom 
Pitt  represented.  The  merchant  and  trading  classes  were  be- 
coming rich  and  powerful  in  England.  The  press  had  be- 
come a  very  great  power.  The  doings  of  Parliament  were 
now  printed  in  the  newspapers,  and  people  were  free  to  speak 
their  minds.  Wilkes  (p.  311)  and  an  unknown  author  who 
signed  the  name  "Junius"  to  his  letters,  had  written  harsh 
criticisms  on  King  George  and  his  "friends/'  An  effort  to 
punish  Wilkes  failed;  the  people  were  determined  to  sustain 
the  freedom  of  the  press.  They  wanted  to  know  what  their 
government  was  doing.  The  Parliament,  knowing  that  the 
people  were  keeping  close  watch  of  them,  were  more  careful 
to  do  what  was  desired,  and  in  most  cases  the  voice  of  the 
people  was  right. 


320  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1760 

Farming,  Manufacturing,  and  Transportation  were 
wonderfully  improved  during  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.  It  was  not  her  colonies  that  made  England  the 
greatest  industrial  country  in  the  world,  but  the  genius  of  the 
people  who  knew  how  to  make  use  of  the  products  of  these 
colonies.  During  this  period,  the  people  also  improved  their 
methods  of  farming  and  of  stock  raising.  A  country  can 
not  have  a  large  population  unless  enough  food  can  be  pro- 
cured to  feed  them. 

A  large  part  of  the  land  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  consisted  of  waste  moorlands  and  swamps,  affording 
only  a  scanty  pasturage.  People  began  to  cut  ditches  through 
the  wet  land  and  drain  it,  so  that  it  could  be  plowed,  planted, 
and  cultivated.  A  Yorkshire  miner,  named  James  Croft,  set 
a  good  example  to  farmers  by  fencing  eight  acres  of  moorland, 
thought  to  be  worthless.  But  Croft  dug  out  the  stones  and 
filled  up  the  holes  with  soil ;  he  brought  marl  and  fertilized  it, 
and  found  that  it  was  excellent  land. 

A  farmer  named  Eobert  Bakewell  learned  how  to  breed 
cattle  and  sheep  so  that  he  could  get  twice  as  much  beef  or 
mutton  from  a  single  animal  as  before.  By  keeping  only  the 
largest  and  finest  animals,  he  soon  had  better  flocks  and  herds 
than  any  of  his  neighbors.  His  methods  were  imitated  until 
England  came  to  produce  some  of  the  finest  breeds  of  cattle 
and  sheep  in  the  world. 

But  means  of  transportation,  good  roads  and  canals,  are 
necessary  if  the  farmers  and  others  are  to  find  a  market  for 
their  products.  When  the  United  States  became  independent 
in  1776,  it  had  better  means  of  getting  from  place  to  place 
than  England  had.  There  was  no  better  way  to  carry  goods 
on  land,  than  in  carts  and  on  the  backs  of  horses;  and  the 
reads  were  so  bad  that  even  this  could  be  done  easily  only  at 
certain  times. 

Canal  Building  in  England  came  about  in  this  way.    The 


1767]  GEORGE  III.  321 

young  Duke  of  Bridgewater  had  valuable  coal  beds  on  his 
estate,  situated  nine  miles  from  the  large  city  of  Manchester. 
If  he  could  get  the  coal  to  the  city  it  would  find  a  ready 
market;  but  the  expense  of  taking  it  there  in  carts  over  the 
bad  roads  was  more  than  the  coal  was  worth.  The  duke  had 
in  his  employ  a  millwright,  James  Brindley,  who  thought  a 
canal  could  be  made.  The  canal  would  have  to  go  through 
tunnels,  across  valleys,  and  over  rivers.  Such  an  undertaking 
had  never  been  dreamed  of.  The  most  famous  engineers  in 
England  only  laughed  at  Brindley.  But  he  went  to  work  and 
built  the  canal.  People  came  from  far  and  near  to  see  the 
work.  They  said  that  Brindley  "  handled  rocks  as  easily  as 
a  boy  would  a  plum  pie  at  Christmas."  It  was  finished  and 
was  a  success. 

Once  started,  canal  building  went  on,  until  the  chief  rivers 
and  cities  were  connected  by  three  thousand  miles  of  nav- 
igable canals.  The  great  coal  and  iron  deposits  could  now  be 
brought  together.  Iron  working  had  stopped  when  the  wood 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mines  was  exhausted.  But  soon 
it  was  found  that  hard  coal  could  be  used,  as  well  as  char- 
coal, for  smelting  iron  ore.  Now  that  the  canals  made  it 
possible  to  transport  the  heavy  coal  and  iron,  England  be- 
came the  greatest  iron-manufacturing  country  in  the  world. 

Three  Great  Inventions  connected  with  cloth  making 
were  the  beginning  of  the  great  factories  for  which  England 
has  long  been  noted.  James  Hargreaves  was  a  weaver  living 
near  Blackburn.  His  daughters  were  the  "  spinsters "  who 
supplied  the  woof  for  his  loom.  In  the  old-fashioned  wheel 
then  in  use  only  one  thread  could  be  spun  at  a  time.  A 
large  wheel  was  turned  with  the  hand,  and  the  thread  was 
spun  on  a  horizontal  spindle.  One  day  a  wheel  in  motion 
was  accidentally  upset  so  that  the  spindle  stood  perpendicu- 
larly. Hargreaves  noticed  that  the  wheel  continued  to  spin. 
He  then  constructed  a  wheel  which  he  called  a  "spinning 

NlVER  —  *n. 


322  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1767 

jenny,"  in  which  the  spindles  were  vertical  and  which  would 
spin  eight  threads  at  once,  thus  doing  as  much  work  as  eight 
persons  could  do  in  the  old  way.  For  a  time  he  kept  it 
secret,  but  at  last  his  jealous  fellow-weavers,  hearing  of  his 
invention,  broke  into  his  house  and  destroyed  it.  But  they 
could  not  destroy  his  idea.  He  built  another  and  took  out  a 
patent ;  and  in  a  short  time  every  weaver  in  the  county  had  a 
"  spinning  jenny/' 

A  similar  story  could  be  told  of  the  barber,  Eichard  Ark- 
wright,  who  invented  an  improved  spinning  machine  in  1769 ; 
and  of  Samuel  Crompton,  the  inventor  of  the  "  spinning 
mule."  Crompton  and  his  wife  worked  in  secret  and  had 
a  dark  loft  to  conceal  the  "  mule  "  in  case  of  trouble.  When 
his  neighbors  saw  that  his  yarn  commanded  a  higher  price 
than  theirs,  they  wanted  to  get  into  his  house  and  learn  his 
secret.  When  he  could  keep  it  no  longer,  he  gave  his  inven- 
tion to  the  public.  The  manufacturers,  to  whom  he  gave  it, 
agreed  to  pay  him  for  it,  but  he  never  received  more  than 
$500  for  a  machine  worth  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars. 

Edmund  Cartwright's  invention  of  the  power  loom,  near  the 
close  of  the  century,  completed  the  machinery  for  cloth  mak- 
ing. In  1807  Parliament  gave  him  -£10,000  for  his  inven- 
tion. There  were  then  2,000  looms  in  Great  Britain.  In 
1833  there  were  100,000.  Twenty  years  later  there  were 
350,000.  These  figures  show  the  progress  of  cloth  making. 

James  Watt  made  the  greatest  invention  of  all,  for  it  fur- 
nished the  power  to  move  all  the  machines  we  have  mentioned. 
In  1763  he  was  an  instrument  maker  in  the  College  of  Glas- 
gow. A  toy  called  an  "  atmospheric  engine  "  was  given  him 
to  repair,  and  out  of  it  Watt  made  the  steam  engine.  The 
toy  that  Watt  took  to  repair  consisted  of  a  cylinder  in  which 
the  piston  was  forced  upward  by  steam.  Then  a  jet  of 
water  was  turned  on,  condensing  the  steam,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  forced  the  piston  down.  But  the  cold 


1785] 


GEORGE  III. 


323 


water  not  only  condensed  the  steam,  but  cooled  the  cylinder, 
so  that  the  steam  entering  the  cylinder  the  second  time  was 
partly  condensed  and 
wasted.  Watt  made  a 
cylinder  in  which  the 
steam  was  made  to  enter 
first  above  and  then  be- 
low the  piston,  the  pipes 
being  opened  and  closed 
at  the  proper  moment  by 
an  automatic  sliding 
valve.  The  used  steam 
was  pumped  out  into  a 
tank  of  cold  water  to  be 
condensed.  He  covered 
the  cylinder  with  felt  to 
keep  it  hot,  and  thus  pre- 
vented loss.  He  inven- 
ted the  governor,  a  mech- 
anism for  keeping  the 
speed  of  an  engine  uni- 
form. 

The  North  of  Eng- 
land was  turned,  from  a 
rude  and  barren  country, 
into  a  very  hive  of  indus- 
try by  the  steam  engine. 
Before  this,  the  south 
had  been  the  place  where  new  ideas  sprang  up.  The  north 
had  been  the  source  of  rebellion  and  ignorance.  It  had  been 
frequently  turned  into  a  desert  to  subdue  the  restless  inhabit- 
ants. Now,  the  great  coal  and  iron  mines  have  made  it  the 
chief  manufacturing  part  of  Britain,  and  Newcastle,  Man- 
chester, Liverpool,  and  Sheffield  are  great  and  flourishing 


WATT  DISCOVERING  THE  POWEE 
OF  STEAM. 


324  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1789 

cities.  All  of  this  was  made  possible  by  the  invention  of 
James  Watt,  who  began  to  study  steam  when  as  a  boy  he 
watched  the  vibration  of  the  cover  on  his  mother's  teakettle 
as  it  simmered  and  sang  on  the  kitchen  hearth. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  the  personal  rule  of  George  III.  bring  on  the  American 

Revolution? 

2.  In  what  ways  did  the  French  alliance  help  the  Americans? 

3.  How  can  you  explain  the  "  Gordon  Riots  "? 

4.  Was   the   loss  of   the  American   colonies   an   advantage   or   a   loss 

to  England?     Explain  your  answer. 

5.  What  were  Adam  Smith's  ideas  about  trade?     How  far  were  they 

true? 

6.  How  do  the  industries  of  a  country  depend  upon  easy  transporta- 

tion? 

7.  Show  the  importance  of  Watt's  invention. 

8.  How  did  the  inventions  of  this  period  affect  the  English  people? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  HYDER  ALI.     Bright,  History  of  England,   Vol.   III.    (see  index)  ; 

Sarkar,  History  of  India. 

2.  WARREN  HASTINGS.     Macaulay,  Essay  on  Hastings;  Hume,  His- 

tory of  England   (Student's  Series),  pp.  636-642. 

3.  HARGREAVES,  ARKWRIGHT,  CROMPTON,  AND  CARTWRIGHT.     Smiles, 

Self-Help. 

4.  BRINDLEY  AND  WATT.     Smiles,  Lives  of  the  Engineers. 

B.    FROM  THE  FKENCH   EEVOLUTION   TO   THE  PEACE   OF 
AMIENS,  1789-1802. 

The  French  Revolution  marks  the  uprising  of  the  people 
against  kings.  In  the  days  of  William  the  Conqueror,  the 
nobles  shared  the  powers  of  government  with  the  king. 
Then  the  nobles  were  gradually  put  down  and  kings  arose, 
like  Louis  XIV.  and  Henry  VIII.,  who  had  absolute  po\ver. 
Against  this  power  of  the  king,  the  people  of  England  rose 
in  1641-1649,  when  they  put  King  Charles  to  death  and  es- 
tablished the  Commonwealth.  Again  in  1688  they  drove 


1795]  GEORGE  III.  325 

James  II.  out  of  the  country,  and  established  William  and 
Mary  on  the  throne.  In  1776,  the  Americans  revolted  against 
George  III.,  who  attempted  to  get  back  the  power  that  other 
kings  had  given  up.  And  now,  in  1789,  comes  a  great  revo- 
lution of  the  French  people  against  their  king  Louis  XVI. 
This  event  is  important  in  the  study  of  English  history, 
because  it  had  a  great  influence  on  England. 

The  French  people  had  long  been  taxed  heavily  and  un- 
fairly, while  the  French  nobles  and  clergy  were  untaxed.  The 
people  had  no  share  in  the  government,  and  were  despised  by 
the  king  and  nobles.  But  French  soldiers  returning  from  the 
American  war,  filled  with  the  spirit  of  liberty,  helped  to  rouse 
them  to  assert  their  rights.  The  government,  on  account  of 
its  lack  of  money,  was  forced  to  call  together  the  States 
General,  including  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  representatives 
of  the  people;  they  had  not  met  for  more  than  200  years 
before  this.  The  representatives  soon  took  matters  into  their 
own  hands,  put  to  death  the  king  and  his  young  queen  Marie 
Antoinette,  massacred  or  drove  out  of  the  country  all  those 
who  favored  the  old  form  of  government,  and  established  a 
republic.  The  rule  of  the  republican  leaders  was  marked  by 
a  "  reign  of  terror/'  during  which  many  thousands  of  people 
were  arrested  and  put  to  death.  Finally  the  people  rose 
against  these  leaders,  and  a  new  government  of  five  men,  called 
the  "  Directory/'  was  set  up  in  1795.  This  proved  displeasing 
to  the  Paris  mob,  who  wanted  to  return  to  the  old  days  of 
"  terror,"  and  40,000  of  them  advanced  to  attack  the  conven- 
tion that  was  forming  the  new  government.  The  task  of 
defending  it  was  entrusted  to  a  young  artillery  officer  named 
Xapoleon  Bonaparte.  Napoleon  planted  cannon  at  the  cor- 
ners of  the  streets  leading  to  the  hall  where  the  convention 
was  sitting,  and  when  the  mob  approached  mowed  them  down 
with  grapeshot.  The  new  government  was  established. 

The  English  People  had  at  first  looked  upon  the  revo- 


1797]  GEORGE  III.  327 

ration,  with,  favor.  They  thought  that  the  French  would 
establish  an  orderly  parliamentary  government  like  their  own. 
But  the  French  had  been  for  centuries  without  any  share  in 
the  government,  and  they  knew  only  how  to  destroy,  not  how 
to  build  up.  The  French  republicans  not  only  wanted  a 
free  government  for  themselves,  but  gave  notice  that  they 
would  establish  republics  throughout  Europe.  They  began 
war  on  the  neighboring  nations.  They  boasted  that  they 
would  send  50,000  men  to  England  to  help  the  republicans 
there  to  put  down  the  king.  They  declared  war  against  Eng- 
land in  1793,  and  seized  the  Austrian  Netherlands  (formerly 
Spanish),  after  defeating  an  English  army  there.  This  broke 
a  treaty  which  had  been  made  by  France  and  was  a  reason 
why  England  should  declare  war.  Another  very  important 
reason  was  that  the  spread  of  French  rule  interfered  with 
English  commerce. 

The  English  Plans  of  War  provided  for  the  command 
of  the  sea  and  the  defense  of  the  coast  against  invasion. 
Napoleon  had  become  commander  in  chief  of  the  French 
armies.  He  defeated  the  Austrians,  drove  them  out  of 
Italy,  and  forced  them  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace.  Prussia 
also  was  frightened  into  making  peace.  Spain  and  Holland 
had  joined  France,  for  they  saw  in  the  strength  of  the  new 
French  republic  an  ally  against  their  great  rival,  England. 
England  therefore  stood  forth  alone  against  France  and  her 
allies. 

The  Battle  of  St.  Vincent  prevented  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
land. A  Spanish  fleet  was  coming  out  of  the  Mediterranean 
to  join  the  French  and  Dutch  vessels  for  an  attack  on  the 
English  coast.  As  it  was  rounding  the  southern  point  of 
Portugal,  it  was  met  by  Sir  John  Jarvis  and  Commodore 
Nelson  with  fifteen  vessels.  Nine  Spanish  ships  were  cut  off 
from  the  main  body.  The  rest  were  attacked,  and  four  of 
them  were  cantured.  When  Nelson  boarded  one  of  them,  the 


328 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1797 


Spanish,  officers  crowded  about,  and  gave  up  so  many  swords 
to  him  that  he  had  to  give  them  to  one  of  his  men  to  hold,  who 
went  away  with  an  armful. 

Two  Serious  Mutinies  broke  out  in  the  English  navy  at 
this  time  (1797).  The  first  began  at  Spithead  near  Ports- 
mouth. The  sailors  had  just  cause  for  complaint.  The  ra- 
tions furnished  them  were  very  bad,  and  sometimes  they  could 
not  get  even  bad  food,  because  the  officers 
appointed  to  provision  the  ships  would  man- 
age to  keep  part  of  the  money.  The  rate  of 
wages  was  not  enough  to  support  them.  Be- 
sides this,  the  discipline  was  brutal;  men 
were  flogged  for  trifling  causes  and  hung  up 
by  the  heels  for  serious  offenses.  The  sailors 
now  refused  to  work  until  they  should  receive 
better  food,  better  wages,  and  better  treat- 
ment. Lord  Howe,  a  great  favorite  with  the 
sailors,  went  among  them  and  told  them 
that  their  grievances  should  be  remedied. 
When  the  sailors  were  convinced  that  the 
Admiralty  meant  to  do  what  Lord  Howe 
promised,  they  returned  to  their  duty  and  there  was  no  more 
trouble. 

The  Second  Mutiny  was  at  the  Nore,  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames.  Under  the  lead  of  a  disorderly  man  named  Parker, 
the  sailors  not  only  demanded  all  that  had  been  granted  to 
the  sailors  at  Spithead,  but  wanted  to  choose  their  own  com- 
manders and  run  the  ships  to  suit  themselves.  The  fleet  of 
Admiral  Duncan,  who  was  watching  the  Dutch  fleet  at  the 
Texel,  also  mutinied.  The  Dutch  fleet  was  planning  to  at- 
tack the  English  coast,  and  it  -was  a  time  of  great  danger. 
All  Duncan's  ships  but  one  sailed  away  and  joined  the  mu- 
tineers; but  he  managed  to  make  the  Dutch  think  his  fleet 
was  still  near  by  running  up  signals  from  time  to  time,  pre- 


AN  ENGLISH 
SAILOK. 


1798] 


GEORGE  III. 


329 


tending  to  keep  up  communication  with  it.  Finally  Parker 
was  caught  and  hanged.  The  other  sailors  were  treated 
fairly;  their  just  demands  were  granted,  and  only  a  few  of 
them  were  punished. 

The  Battle  of  Camperdown  was  fought  as  soon  as  Duncan 
got  his  ships  together  again.  Camperdown  is  on  the  Dutch 
coast.  The  English  admiral  ran  his  ships  between  the  Dutch 
fleet  and  the  shore,  to  prevent  their  escape.  He  then  at- 
tacked them  and  came  off  with  twelve  prizes.  There  was  no 
more  fear  of  a  Dutch  invasion.  The  French  fleet  was  soon, 
to  meet  the  same  fate^J 

Napoleon  TJbnaparte,  after  winning  a  great  reputation  by 
victories  over  the  Austrians,  now  formed  the  plan  of  attack- 
ing England  through  her  Indian  colonies.  In  1798  he  took 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  NILE. 


a  large  army  and  fleet  to  Egypt  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  country.  Egypt  commanded  the  Red  Sea  and  the  eastern 
Mediterranean,  Having  possession  of  it,  France  could  send 


33O  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1798 

ships  down  the  Red  Sea  and  across  the  Indian  Ocean  to  India 
in  far  less  time  than  England  could  send  ships  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Bonaparte's  fleet  had  seized  the  island  of  Malta  on  its  way 
to  Egypt,  and  was  now  at  Aboukir  Bay,  near  one  of  the  mouths 
of  the  Nile.  Nelson  had  been  watching  for  it,  sailing  up  and 
down  the  Mediterranean.  At  length  he  sighted  it  off  the 
Egyptian  coast. 

The  Battle  of  the  Nile  was  a  repetition  of  Admiral  Dun- 
can's stratagem  at  the  Texel.  Nelson  boldly  sailed  with  hak 
of  his  fleet  between  the  French  ships  and  the  shore.  By  this 
means  he  prevented  their  escape.  He  attacked  in  the 
evening,  and  all  night  the  battle  raged.  When  morning  came 
eleven  French  ships  had  been  taken  or  destroyed.  Only  two 
came  off  safe.  Napoleon  himself  soon  returned  to  France, 
and  two  years  later,  in  1801,  the  French  army  was  defeated 
by  the  English  at  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  and  compelled  to 
leave  the  country.  Thus  Napoleon's  grand  scheme  for  strik- 
ing a  blow  at  India  by  way  of  Egypt  came  to  nothing. 

In  India,  also,  during  this  time,  the  English  had  been  suc- 
cessful. Tippoo  Sahib,  Hyder  Ali's  son  and  successor,  rely- 
ing upon  French  aid,  had  begun  an  attack  on  the  English  in 
the  Carnatic.  But  General  Harris  pursued  him  to  his  cap- 
ital, which  he  took  by  assault.  Tippoo  was  killed,  and  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Mysore,  with  an  immense  amount  of  silver, 
gold,  and  jewels,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  From 
this  time  on  the  English  power  in  India  increased  rapidly. 
It  was  only  a  few  years  before  Arthur  Wellesley  defeated  the 
Mahrattas  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Assaye  (1803),  and  brought 
all  the  Mahratta  Country  under  British  control. 

Napoleon's  Return  to  Paris  (November,  1799)  found  the 
Directory  in  confusion.  He  caused  a  new  government  to  be 
formed,  consisting  of  three  men  called  "  consuls."  Napoleon 
became  the  First  Consul.  He  soon  conceived  the  idea  of  con- 


1801]  GEORGE  III. 

quering  all  Europe.     He  at  once  crossed  the  Alps  with  40,000 
men  and  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  of  Marengo^ 
The  Emperor  Francis  I.  was  compelled  to  make  a  peace  whicE" 
extended  the  boundary  of  France  to  the  Rhine,  and  made 
changes  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands. 

The  Battle  of  the  Baltic  (1801) .  During  the  Revolution- 
ary  War  in  America,  England  claimed  the  right  to  stop 
the  vessels  of  neutral  nations  on  the  high  seas  and  search  them, 
to  see  whether  they  were  carrying  any  war  supplies  for  Amer- 
ica. The  neutral  nations  Holland,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark joined  in  a  league,  called  the  Armed  Neutrality,  to  resist 
this  search.  As  England  continued  to  search  vessels,  Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark,  in  1801,  refused  to  allow  any  English 
vessels  or  property  to  enter  or  leave  their  ports.  England 
upon  this  began  war.  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and  Nelson  were  sent 
with  a  fleet  to  destroy  the  ships  of  the  league. 

The  Danish  fleet  was  assembled  at  Copenhagen.  The  ap- 
proach to  the  harbor,  at  the  entrance  of  which  the  fleet  was 
drawn  up,  was  defended  by  six  hundred  guns.  The  channels 
leading  up  to  the  harbor  were  narrow  and  dangerous.  Nelson 
chose  the  more  dangerous  one,  because  it  was  less  strongly 
defended.  Three  of  the  twelve  British  ships  that  made  the 
attack  went  aground,  but  with  the  nine  remaining  ones  he 
sailed  close  up  to  the  Danish  line.  Of  all  his  battles  Nelson 
said  this  was  the  fiercest.  So  doubtful  was  the  contest  that 
Admiral  Parker  hoisted  the  signal  to  discontinue  action;  but 
Nelson's  signal  for  "close  action"  was  flying.  When  an 
officer  called  his  attention  to  the  admiral's  signal,  he  put  his 
telescope  to  his  blind  eye  and  said,  "  I  really  can  not  see  the 
signal."  "Leave  off  action!"  he  muttered,  "I'll  be  hanged 
if  I  do !"  and  turning  to  the  officer,  he  said,  "  Foley,  mind 
you  keep  my  signal  up  \" 

After  four  hours,  the  Danish  fire  slackened.  Half  their 
ships  were  wrecked ;  their  flagship  was  on  fire  and  soon  blew 


332  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1801 

up.  Nelson  sent  a  messenger  on  shore,  offering  a  truce,  which 
the  Danes  were  glad  to  accept.  You  may  imagine  the  joy 
with  which  England  received  the  news  of  this  victory.  The 
poet  Thomas  Campbell  has  written  a  stirring  ballad  about  it. 

Of  Nelson  and  the  North, 

Sing  the  glorious  day's  renown, 
When  to  battle  fierce  came  forth 

All  the  might  of  Denmark's  crown, 
And  her  arms  along  the  deep  proudly  shone. 

By  each  gun  the  lighted  brand 

'In  a  bold,  determined  hand, 

And  the  Prince  of  all  the  land 
Led  them  on. 

Like  leviathans  afloat 

Lay  their  bulwarks  on  the  brine, 
While  the  sign  of  battle  flew 

On  the  lofty  British  line : 
It  was  ten  of  April  morn  by  the  chime : 

As  they  drifted  on  their  path, 

There  was  silence  deep  as  death, 

And  the  boldest  held  his  breath 
For  a  time. 

*         *         * 

Again !  again  !  again ! 

And  the  havoc  did  not  slack, 
Till  a  feeble  cheer  the  Dane 

To  our  cheering  sent  us  back ; 
Their  shots  along  the  deep  slowly  boom, 

Then  cease  —  and  all  is  wail, 

As  they  strike  the  shattered  sail ; 

Or  in  conflagration  pale 
Light  the  gloom. 

The  battle  of  the  Baltic  settled  the  war  against  the  Armed 
Neutrality.  The  Swedish  fleet  declined  to  fight  and  sailed 
away,  while  Nelson  went  on  to  attack  the  Eussians.  But 
the  accession  of  a  new  czar,  Alexander  I.,  changed  the  policy 
of  Eussia.  He  was  an  enemy  of  Napoleon,  and  made  peace 
with  England.  It  was  agreed  that  the  right  of  search  should 
continue,  with  some  restrictions. 


1802]  GEORGE  IIL  333 

The  Treaty  of  Amiens  (1802)  put  an  end  to  the  wars 
with  Napoleon  for  a  time.  It  had  been  pretty  clearly  set- 
tled, even  to  the  satisfaction  of  that  determined  general,  that 
England  was  supreme  on  the  ocean.  He  might  go  on  win- 
ning victories  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  he  never 
afterwards  seriously  threatened  England  by  sea.  The  peace 
only  meant  that  the  two  countries  were  willing  to  stop  fight- 
ing for  a  time.  As  Napoleon  was  still  aiming  to  rule  over  all 
Europe,  and  as  England,  in  defending  her  commerce  and  try- 
ing to  preserve  the  balance  of  power,  would  not  admit  his 
right  to  seize  other  countries  and  add  them  to  France,  it  was 
plain  that  war  must  soon  be  resumed. 

Affairs  in  Ireland.  The  Irish  Parliament  was  controlled 
by  Protestants  who  made  laws  against  the  Catholics,  for- 
bidding them  to  vote,  hold  office,  or  keep  arms.  The  Cath- 
olics had  to  pay  tithes  to  the  English  Church.  The  land  on 
which  they  lived  belonged  either  to  the  English  Church  or  to 
landlords  who  collected  their  rents  by  means  of  agents  who 
treated  the  Irish  peasants  with  the  greatest  cruelty. 

Irish  rebellion  broke  out  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the 
French  Eevolution.  Men's  minds  everywhere  were  stirred 
in  behalf  of  liberty.  The  Irish  made  an  attempt,  with  the 
help  of  the  French,  to  get  entire  independence  of  England, 
and  they  came  very  near  succeeding. 

Wolfe  Tone,  a  young  lawyer  and  a  Protestant,  succeeded  in 
uniting  the  Irish  Catholics  and  the  Irish  republicans  into  one 
great  society,  the  "  United  Irishmen."  He  then  arranged  with 
the  French  Directory  to  send  a  strong  army  to  set  up  a  re- 
public in  Ireland.  A  French  expedition  of  thirty-eight  ships 
sailed  for  Bantry  Bay  at  the  end  of  1796,  but  General  Hoche, 
who  was  to  lead  it,  was  delayed,  and  a  hurricane  compelled  the 
ships  to  return  to  Brest. 

The  United  Irishmen,  however,  soon  formed  a  new  plot. 
On  May  23,  1798,  the  branches  of  this  society  throughout  the 


334  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1798 

country  were  to  fall  upon  the  English  and  sweep  them  from 
the  island.  Then,  in  union  with  a  French  army,  they  would 
be  able  to  bid  defiance  to  England.  It  was  a  reasonable 
scheme;  but  there  were  traitors  among  them  who  sold  infor- 
mation to  the  British  government.  Some  of  the  leaders  were 
arrested,  and  an  English  army  began  to  disarm  the  conspira- 
tors. In  Ulster  alone  it  took  from  them  50,000  muskets,  70,- 
000  pikes,  and  72  cannon.  Still,  on  the  appointed  day,  the 
Irish  societies  rose  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  com- 
mitted many  acts  of  cruelty,  burning,  plundering,  and  mur- 
dering. The  only  fights  worthy  the  name  of  battles  were  at 
Arklow  and  Vinegar  Hill  (map,  p.  232).  But  the  vengeance 
taken  by  the  English  army,  the  "  bloody  Orange  dogs  "  as  the 
Irish  called  them,  was  frightful.  Hundreds  were  lined  up  and 
shot.  Fitzgerald,  the  Irish  leader,  made  a  desperate  attempt 
to  escape  arrest.  He  killed  two  men  with  his  dagger  before 
he  was  shot.  Wolfe  Tone  was  condemned  to  death,  but  com- 
mitted suicide  in  prison. 

Union  With  Ireland.  Order  was  again  established,  but 
Pitt  believed  that  there  was  no  cure  for  the  troubles  in  Ire- 
land except  to  unite  the  two  Parliaments.  In  1800,  the  Act 
of  Union  passed  both  Parliaments.  Ireland  was  to  send 
thirty-two  peers  and  one  hundred  commoners  to  the  British 
Parliament,  and  to  pay  two  seventeenths  of  the  taxes. 

Pitt  also  urged  the  making  of  a  law  to  give  the  Catholics 
liberty  of  worship,  and  the  same  rights  to  hold  office  that  the 
Protestants  had ;  but  the  stubborn  king  declared  that  any  one 
supporting  such  a  bill  would  become  his  personal  enemy. 
Pitt  therefore  resigned,  and  his  friend,  Henry  Addington,  be- 
came premier.  Addington's  plan  was  to  keep  peace  with 
France  at  any  sacrifice.  When  Bonaparte's  continued  ag- 
gression again  made  war  unavoidable,  he  resigned.  Pitt  was 
recalled  and  remained  in  office  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1806. 


1803]  GEORGE  111.  335 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  the  English  people  regard  the  French  Revolution?     Why? 

2.  What  war  in  England  may  be  compared  with  the  French  Revolu- 

tion?    Why?- 

3.  How  far  was  England's  claim  to  the  right  of  search  just? 

4.  Do  you  favor  Pitt's  plans  in  regard  to  Ireland  or  those  of  the  king? 

Why? 

5.  What  were  the  reasons  for  the  wars  between  England  and  France? 

6.  Show  the  importance  at  this  time  of  the  geographical  situation  of 

England. 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  NAPOLEON  IN  EGYPT.     Hume  (Student's  Series),  pp.  652-655. 

2.  BATTLE  OF  THE  BALTIC.     Campbell,  Poem,  Battle  of  the  Baltic; 

Russell,  kelson,  Chap.  XIV. 

3.  How  NELSON  LOST  HIS  ARM.     Creighton,  Stories  of  English  History. 

4.  BATTLE  OF  THE  NILE.     Fitchett,  Deeds  that  won  the  Empire,  pp. 

99-112;  Brooks,  Heroic  Happenings,  pp.  72-83;  Hemans,  Casa- 
bianca. 

C.    THE  DEFEAT  OF  NAPOLEON. 

Napoleon  and  England.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  gave 
Napoleon  time  to  think  over  the  strength  of  England.  She 
had  given  him  some  hard  blows  in  Egypt,  in  the  Baltic,  and 
in  India.  But  his  victories  over  the  Austrians,  and  his 
knowledge  that  the  other  countries  hated  England  on  account 
of  her  colonies  and  trade,  soon  led  him  to  provoke  a  new  war. 
He  felt  that  if  he  could  conquer  England  he  could  conquer 
the  world.  And  "eight  millions  of  people/'  he  said,  "must 
yield  to  forty  millions/'  England,  for  her  part,  knew  that 
Xapoleon  was  determined  to  destroy  her  colonial  empire  and 
to  ruin  her  commerce;  and  she  was  ready  to  fight  in  their 
defense. 

On  beginning  the  war  in  1803,  Napoleon  seized  and  threw 
into  prison  about  10,000  English  travelers  in  France,  though 
he  had  not  warned  them  to  leave  the  country  as  is  customary 
when  two  countries  begin  war.  He  soon  stirred  up  another 


336 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1805 


rebellion  in  Ireland  under  Kobert  Emmet.  But  Emmet  was 
seized  and  hanged,  and  the  rising  was  quickly  put  down. 

An  Attempted  Invasion  of  England.  All  the  fighting 
men  in  England  were  called  out  and  drilled,  to  repel  an  inva- 
sion for  which  Napoleon  was  making 
great  preparations,  and  Nelson,  Colling- 
wood,  Calder,  and  Cornwallis  were  sta- 
tioned with  strong  fleets  off  the  French 
coast,  to  keep  watch  so  that  no  French 
ships  could  cross  the  Channel. 

Finally  Napoleon  thought  he  had 
.t  upon  the  right  plan.     There  was  a 
Spanish    fleet    at    Cadiz,    and 
French  fleets  at  Toulon,  Brest, 
and    Boulogne.     His     admiral, 
Villeneuve,    was    to    sail    from 
Toulon,  pick  up  the  Cadiz  fleet 
on  the  way,  and  then  steer  for 
the  West  Indies,  pretending  to 
NAPOLEON.  attack  the  English   possessions 

there.  This  would  draw  Nelson  in  pursuit  and  weaken  the 
blockade  at  Brest  and  especially  at  Boulogne,  where  Napo- 
leon's army  was  mustered.  When  Nelson  was  far  enough 
away  Villeneuve  ,was  to  sail  back  suddenly  and  take  in  the 
French  fleet  at  Brest.  This  would  make  him  strong  enough 
to  brush  away  the  English  ships  at  Boulogne,  and  to  take  the 
French  army  safely  to  Ireland  and  England. 

Villeneuve  succeeded  in  the  first  part  of  the  plan,  and 
Nelson  followed  him  to  the  West  Indies.  But  when  he  re- 
turned to  France  and  approached  Brest,  he  was  met  by  an 
English  fleet  and  took  refuge  in  the  safe  harbor  of  Cadiz. 
Napoleon  was  at  Boulogne,  anxiously  scanning  the  horizon 
seaward  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  Villeneuve.  The  appointed 
day  came,  but  no  fleet.  Napoleon,  who  was  now  Emperor  of 


1805] 


GEORGE  III. 


337 


the  French,  wrote  to  his  admiral:  " England  is  ours.  Let 
us  avenge  six  centuries  of  shame.  \\e  are  ready.  All  is  em- 
barked. Come  within  twenty-four  hours  and  all  is  finished." 
?.Iedals  were  already  struck  in  honor  of  the  expected  victory. 
The  future  government  of  England  was  all  planned.  But 
Yilleneuve  did  not  come.  Ten  days  the  impatient  general 
waited,  and  then,  with  curses  on  the  cowardly  and  inefficient 
admiral,  he  broke  up  his  camps  and  headed  his  armies  toward 


BATTLE  OF  TRAFALGAR  ;  DEATH  OF  NELSON. 

Germany.     Before  the  year  was  out,  he  had  won  the  battle  of 
Anstorlitz^and  had  again  humbled  Austria  to  the  dust. 

The  Battle  of  Trafalgar.  Yilleneuve,  under  Xapoleon's 
orders,  sailed  out  of  Cadiz  with  forty  ships.  Xelson  arranged 
his  twenty-seven  ships  in  two  columns,  which  struck  the 
French  battle  line  at  right  angles,  cutting  it  into  three  parts. 
It  was  a  terribly  dangerous  plan  for  the  vessels  leading, 
but  made  victory  more  certain,  since  fresh  ships  were  all 
the  time  coming  up.  Before  the  battle,  Xelson  put  up  his  fa-  J) 


338  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1805 

mous  signal  at  the  mast-head  of  his  flagship,  the  "  Victory  " : 
"  England  expects  every  man  win  _do  his_duty_/^  English 
sailors  never  did  it  better.  Out  of  the  whole  fleet  of  the  enemy, 
only  eight  ships  escaped,  and  these  were  afterward  burned  in 
the  harbor  of  Cadiz.  But  Nelson,  who  had  fought  more  than 
a  hundred  battles,  was  shot  by  a  rifleman  from  the  rigging 
of  a  French  ship,  and  died  in  the  moment  of  victory.  Na- 
poleon and  Nelson  are  the  greatest  names  of  this  period,  the 
one  unconquered  on  the  land,  the  other  unconquered  on  the 
ocean.  But  Napoleon  fought  to  make  other  nations  his  slaves ; 
Nelson  fought  to  protect  his  own  nation  against  invasion. 

"  Wherever  brave  deeds  are  treasured  and  told, 

In  the  tales  of  the  deeds  of  yore, 
Like  jewels  of  price  in  a  chain  of  gold 

Are  the  name  and  the  fame  he  bore. 
Wherever  the  track  of  our  English  ships 

Lies  white  on  the  ocean  foam, 
His  name  is  sweet  to  our  English  lips, 

As  the  names  of  the  flowers  at  home."1 

Russia  and  Prussia  had  joined  against  Napoleon.  But 
Prussia  was  crushed  in  two  great  battles,  and  Napoleon 
marched  his  victorious  army  into  Berlin.  The  next  year 
the  Eussians  were  completely  overwhelmed.  It  seemed  that 
nothing  could  stand  against  Napoleon's  genius.  These  wars 
were  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807).  Napoleon  met 
the  czar  on  a  raft  in  the  river  Niemen. 

"  Do  you  hate  the  English  ?  "  asked  the  emperor. 

"  As  much  as  you  do/'  replied  the  czar. 

"  Then,"  said  Napoleon,  "  peace  is  soon  made." 

All  Europe  was  to  be  compelled  by  Eussia  and  France  to 
join  in  an  alliance  against  England.  Eussia  was  to  look  after 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  while  Spain  and  Portugal 
were  left  to  Napoleon  to  deal  with  as  he  pleased.  The  Neth~ 

JFrom  the  poem  "Nelson,"  by  E.  Nesbit. 


1807]  GEORGE  III.  339 

erlands  and  the  various  states  of  Italy  and  Germany  were 
already  under  Napoleon's  influence  or  control. 

George  Canning  was  now  the  English  Foreign  Secretary, 
and  believed  in  vigorous  war  measures  against  France.  Learn- 
ing through  his  secret  agents  that  Napoleon  was  planning  to 
seize  the  strong  fleet  of  the  Danes  to  use  against  England,  he 
sent  an  expedition  to  demand  its  surrender,  agreeing  to  return 
it  at  the  end  of  the  war.  As  the  Danes  refused  to  give  it  up, 
Copenhagen  was  bombarded  and  burned  and  the  fleet  taken. 

Attacks  on  Neutral  Commerce.  The  loss  of  the  French 
navy  had  compelled  Napoleon  to  allow  neutral  ships  to  do  the 
carrying  trade  in  French  West  Indian  products.  As  England 
would  not  allow  direct  trade  between  these  islands  and  Europe, 
United  States  vessels  first  took  their  cargoes  to  some  home  port, 
and  then  reshipped  them  to  France.  But  in  1805  Great 
Britain  refused  to  allow  French  West  Indian  goods  to  be  sent 
from  any  American  port  to  France,  and  began  to  search 
United  States  ships  and  seize  them.  Also,  many  sailors  found 
on  American  ships,  including  some  deserters  from  the  British 
navy,  were  impressed  into  the  British  service. 

As  Napoleon  could  no  longer  attack  the  English  commerce 
on  the  ocean,  he  now  attacked  it  on  land.  He  issued  the 
^Berlin  Decrees-after  his  victory  over  the  Prussians.  It  for- 
bade all  countries  in  Europe  under  French  influence  to  trade 
with  Great  Britain.  The  British  replied  by  theiiflOrdejg  i™ 
CounciLldeclaring  that  all  ports  of  France  and  her  allies  were 
blockaded,  and  that  any  vessel  going  to  any  of  them  would  be 
captured  unless  it  had  previously  touched  at  a  British  port. 
Napoleon  then  issued  his  |Milan_ DecreeJ  declaring  that  all 
neutral  vessels  that  touched  at  any  British  port  would  be 
captured.  The  Americans  were  the  chief  sufferers  from  these 
laws,  as  they  were  the  chief  neutral  nation  engaged  in  trade. 
In  1807,  nearly  400  American  ships  were  captured  and  sold  by 
England  and  France. 

NlVER  —  21* 


340 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1807 


Spain  and  Portugal  now  attracted  the  attention  <?f  Na- 
poleon. In  August,  1807,  he  wrote  to  the  Prince  Regent  of 
Portugal,  ordering  him  to  seize  all  English  property,  and  to 
close  the  ports  of  his  country  to  English  trade.  He  also  sent 
a  French  army  to  enforce  his  orders.  Instead  of  obeying,  the 

entire  royal  family  of 
Portugal  emigrated  to 
the  Portuguese  colony 
of  Brazil.  Soon  after 
this  Napoleon  set  up 
his  brother  Joseph  as 
King  of  Spain,  but  the 
disgusted  Spanish  rose 
in  rebellion  and  sent 
to  England  for  help. 
Canning  was  not  slow 
to  help  them.  Im- 
mense quantities  of 
military  supplies  and 
money  were  sent  at  once.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  who  had 
fought  in  India,  and  Sir  John  Moore,  who  had  fought  in 
Egypt,  were  sent  with  20,000  men. 

The  Peninsular  War  was  a  struggle  for  independence  on 
the  part  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  aided  by  England,  against 
Napoleon.  It  began  with  a  series  of  victories  over  the  French. 
The  Spanish  compelled  a  French  army  of  17,000  men  to 
surrender  at  Baylen,  and  advanced  toward  Madrid.  "  King 
Joseph  "  fled  north  of  the  Ebro.  The  English  under  Welles- 
ley  met  a  French  army  on  the  road  to  Lisbon  and  defeated 
it  with  a  loss  of  3,000  men  at  Vimeiro  (1808). 

Napoleon  now  appeared  in  Spain  with  an  army  of  200,000 
men.  He  entered  Madrid  in  triumph  and  reestablished  Joseph. 
The  Spanish  were  not  good  soldiers;  when  they  should  have 
gathered  to  the  aid  of  the  English,  now  under  Sir  John  Moore, 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 


1810]  GEORGE  III.  341 

they  ran  away  and  left  their  allies  to  fight  alone.  The  25,000 
English  could  not  fight  200,000  trained  soldiers,  led  by  the 
greatest  general  of  the  age.  Moore  therefore  retreated  to  the 
coast.  At  Corunna  he  beat  off  the  French  so  that  the  army 
could  embark  safely;  but  he  himself  was  killed.  The  poet 
Wolfe  has  told  the  story  of  his  burial : 

"  We  buried  him  darkly  at  dead  of  night, 
The  sods   with  our  bayonets  turning ; 
By  the  struggling  moonbeam's  misty  light, 
And  the  lantern  dimly  burning. 

"  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down, 

From  the  field  of  his  fame  fresh  and  gory ; 
We  carved  not  a  line  and  we  raised  not  a  stone, 
But  we  left  him  alone  with  his  glory." 

During  Napoleon's  absence  in  Spain,  Austria  had  declared 
war,  and  he  was  soon  forced  to  lead  away  the  best  of  his 
troops  to  the  Danube.  He  met  the  Austrians  and  defeated 
them  for  the  fourth  time  at  Wagram  (1809). 

Three  weeks  later,  Wellesley  defeated  the  French  army  in 
Spain  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Talavera.  The  Spaniards  were 
again  treacherous,  and  Wellesley  resolved  to  have  nothing 
more  to  do  with  them.  He  withdrew  to  Portugal  and  forti- 
fied the  hills  around  Lisbon,  which  he  declared  no  French 
army  could  take.  For  his  skillful  conduct  of  the  war  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  Viscount  Wellington,  and  later 
he  became  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Massdna,  Napoleon's  best  general,  was  now  sent  to  Portu- 
gal with  65,000  men.  The  English  and  Portuguese  laid  waste 
the  country,  driving  all  the  sheep  and  cattle  with  them,  and 
retired  within  the  forts.  The  French  marshal  examined  the 
works  carefully,  and  the  longer  he  looked  at  them,  the  less 
he  liked  them.  For  a  month  he  remained,  and  food  began  to 
fail.  He  then  retreated  into  Spain,  but  so  terrible  was  the 


342  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1S10 

famine  that  30,000  of  his  men  starved  and  died.  Portugal 
was  safe. 

Wellington  now  advanced  and  won  several  victories.  At 
this  time  Napoleon  withdrew  part  of  his  forces  for  the  in- 
vasion of  Eussia,  and  Wellington  entered  Madrid,  driving  out 
King  Joseph.  In  June,  1813,  the  French  were  again  defeated 
at  Vittoria  and  driven  over  the  Pyrenees.  Spain  was  at  last 
cleared  of  the  enemy. 

Napoleon's  Russian  Campaign.  In  the  summer  of  1812 
Napoleon  led  a  great  army  through  Eussia  to  Moscow.  He 
defeated  the  Eussians  in  battle,  but  soon  after  his  arrival 
Moscow  burst  into  flames  in  a  hundred  places.  The  Eussians 
had  decided  to  burn  their  capital  and  destroy  their  enemies 
by  famine.  The  French  began  a  retreat  late  in  October. 
The  severe  Eussian  winter  came  on,  food  was  lacking,  and  the 
armies  of  the  czar  hung  upon  the  rear  and  cut  oft5  small  bodies 
of  the  French.  When  Napoleon  reached  the  borders  of  Ger- 
many, he  had  lost  300,000  men.  Marshal  Ney  was  the  last 
man  to  cross  the  Niemen.  Some  one  asked  him  who  he  was. 
"I  am  the  rear  guard  of  the  French  army,"  said  he.  Na- 
poleon hurried  to  Paris  and  by  great  efforts  raised  another 
army  of  200,000  men.  But  his  enemies  rose  up  behind  him. 
Eussia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Sweden  put  an  army  into  the 
fields  of  Germany  larger  than  his  own. 


Leipzig  was  the  battlefield  of  the  nations.  In  a  battle 
lasting  three  days,  Napoleon  was  defeated  and  driven  back 
to  France  (October,  1813). 

He  was  now  forced  to  resign  the  throne  of  France,  and  to 
retire  to  the  island  of  Elba,  near  the  western  coast  of  Italy. 
In  September,  1814,  delegates  from  the  various  countries  of 
Europe  met  at  Vienna  to  rearrange  the  map  of  Europe,  which 
-  Napoleon  had  so  roughly  disturbed.  While  they  were  busy 
at  this  work,  news  came  that  he  had  escaped  from  Elba  and 
was  in  Paris  levying  soldiers.  It  is  said  that  the  commissioners 


1815] 


GEORGE  III. 


343 


looked  at  one  another  in  astonishment,  and  then,  burst  into  a 
shout  of  laughter.  It  was  the  last  surprise  that  he  had  in  store 
for  his  enemies. 

The  Battle  of  Waterloo  was  the  closing  event  of  Na- 
poleon's career.  The  French  people  had  rejoiced  when  they 
heard  that  their  emperor,  who  had  led  them  to  so  many  vic- 
tories, was  on  the  way  to  Paris.  The  old  soldiers  nocked 
around  him  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  he  soon  had  an 
army  of  250,000  men.  But  the  allies  had  a  million  soldiers 
ready  to  pour  over  his  frontiers  and  crush  him.  This  required 
time,  and  Napoleon  did  not  mean  to  let  them  unite  their 
forces.  * 

The  English  and  Prussians  had  armies  in  the  Netherlands 
under  Wellington  and  Bliicher.  Napoleon  suddenly  crossed 
the  French  frontier  and  attacked  Bliicher  at  Ligny  and  drove 
him  back  twenty  miles.  Turning  northward  he  started  for 

Wellington,  whose  head- 
quarters were  at  Brus- 
sels. The  English  gen- 
eral took  his  position 
about  two  miles  from  the 
village  of  "Waterloo, 
drawing  his  army  up  in 
squares  along  a  highway, 
and  defending  the  ap- 
proach by  two  strong 

BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO.  p0sts    on    the    right    and 

left  of  his  lines.  The  two  armies  were  of  nearly  the  same  size, 
—  70,000  men  each, —  but  the  French  had  veteran  troops 
and  more  guns.  All  day  the  French  beat  upon  the  English 
squares,  which  stubbornly  held  their  ground.  Toward  night 
Bliicher's  Prussian  army  arrived  on  the  field  and  struck 
Xapoleon's  flank.  The  French  fire  weakened,  and  the  whole 
English  army  moved  forward  and  drove  the  French  in  utter 


344  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1812 

rout  from  the  field.  Each  army  lost  about  25,000  men.  It 
was  Napoleon's  last  battle.  He  was  exiled  to  St.  Helena, 
a  lonely  island  in  the  south  Atlantic,  and  Louis  XVIII.,  the 
brother  of  that  Louis  who  had  been  executed  during  the  revo- 
lution, was  restored  to  his  throne. 

The  War  of  1812.  During  England's  struggle  against 
Napoleon,  a  second  war  was  waged  with  America,  In  1812 
the  United  States  declared  war  on  Great  Britain  because  of 
her  interference  with  American  commerce  (p.  339),  her  im- 
pressment of  American  seamen,  and  the  frontier  attacks  by 
Indians  under  British  influence.  Most  of  the  battles  of  this 
war  were  fought  upon  the  ocean  and  along  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Canada.  The  wonderful  thing  about  the  war  is  the 
great  number  of  victories  that  the  Americans  won  against 
the  finest  navy  in  the  world.  The  American  aim  was  better 
than  the  British,  and  besides  this,  the  British  made  the  same 
mistake  that  they  made  in  the  Revolution.  They  regarded 
the  Americans  as  inferior  to  them  in  every  respect,  and  did 
not  take  the  same  care  that  they  did  in  fighting  battles  in 
Europe. 

The  battle  of  New  Orleans  (January,  1815)  taught  them 
this  error  in  a  very  emphatic  way.  An  army  of  British  vet- 
erans tried  to  storm  intrenchments  defended  by  volunteers 
from  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  were  driven  back  with 
the  loss  of  over  2,000  men,  as  against  an  American  loss  of  71. 

The  war  was  closed  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Ghent  in  De- 
cember, 1814,  in  which  nothing  was  said  about  the  causes  of 
the  war.  But  Great  Britain  impressed  no  more  American 
sailors;  and  the  right  of  search  was  quietly  dropped,  and  in 
1856  was  declared  unlawful. 

Results  of  the  Wars.  England  had  been  at  war  with 
France  and  other  nations  nearly  all  ihe  time  from  1789  to 
1815.  She  was  now  at  peace,  and  the  suffering  caused  by  the 
war  began  to  receive  attention.  The  national  debt  had  in- 


1820]  GEORGE  III.  345 

creased  from  $5,000,000  to  $4,500,000,000,  that  is,  it  had  be- 
come nine  hundred  times  as  great.  The  yearly  interest 
amounted  to  $160,000,000.  To  raise  this  amount  and  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  government,  taxes  were  very  heavy. 
Nearly  everything  that  people  used  in  daily  life  was  taxed. 
Hundreds  of  men  were  ruined  by  the  heavy  taxes  or  by  the 
effect  of  the  wars  on  their  business.  Banks  and  factories 
closed,  and  thousands  of  people  were  out  of  work. 

The  "  Corn  Law  "  passed  in  1815  did  not  aim  to  produce 
revenue,  but  to  keep  up  the  price  of  grain  in  the  interest  of  the 
landholding  class.  By  it  no  grain  was  allowed  to  be  brought 
into  England  till  the  price  reached  ten  shillings  ($2.50)  a 
bushel.  The  next  year  there  was  a  bad  harvest,  the  price  of 
grain  rose,  many  people  could  not  get  food,  and  riots  broke 
out  all  over  the  country,  accompanied  by  the  destruction  of 
property  and  the  stopping  of  business. 

Another  cause  of  distress  was  the  rapid  introduction  of 
machinery,  throwing  many  out  of  employment.  The  people 
thought  that  the  new  machines  were  a  bad  thing  for  them. 
Night  attacks  were  made  upon  the  factories,  and  many  ma- 
chines were  destroyed.  This  led  to  riots,  conflicts  with  the 
officers  of  the  law,  and  the  stopping  of  useful  work. 

Demand  for  Reform.  The  Parliament  was  still  con- 
trolled by  the  nobility  and  the  landholders;  the  working 
classes  had  no  representatives,  and  began  to  demand  reform, 
thinking  that  many  of  their  troubles  could  be  cured  if  they 
were  allowed  to  have  some  share  in  the  government. 

The  Criminal  Laws  were  still  enforced  in  the  old  harsh 
way.  It  was  seen  that  these  laws  did  not  decrease  crime,  but 
no  change  had  been  made.  Many  bills  were  brought  before 
Parliament  by  Sir  Samuel  Eomilly  to  make  the  penalties  less 
severe,  but  the  House  of  Lords  voted  them  down.  The  "  thief- 
takers  "  and  constables  were  often  ready  to  let  criminals  off 
for  a  bribe,  and  in  many  cases  they  actually  encouraged  crim- 


346 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1714 


inals,  in  order  to  get  the  rewards  which  the  government  paid 
for  catching  them. 

The  Old  King,  George  III.,  died  in  January,  1820,  in 
his  eighty-second  year.  For  nine  years  he  had  been  insane, 
and  his  son,  who  later  became  George  IV.,  had  reigned  in 
his  stead  as  Prince  Eegent. 

Literature,  under  the  Hanoverian  kings,  is  marked  by 
a  great  change.  Men  stopped  writing  about  religion  and  so- 
ciety, and  revived  the  old  romantic  tales  of  the  days  of  chiv- 
alry and  of  the  border  wars  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  was  the  greatest  writer  of  this  period 
of  "  romantic  revival/'  as  it  is  called.  He  collected  and  pub- 
lished three  volumes  of  tales  and 
ballads,  which  he  called  "  The 
Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border."  The  "Ballad  of 
Chevy  Chase"  (p.  129) 
was  one  of  these.  He  also 
wrote  poems  on  the  basis  of 
these  tales.  "  The  Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  "The  Lay  of 
k  the  Last  Minstrel,"  and 
"  Marmion "  are  three  of 
the  best.  He  then  turned 
his  attention  to  fiction,  and 
wrote  about  thirty  "Waverley  Novels"  on  historical  and 
legendary  subjects.  "  Ivanhoe  "  and  "  The  Talisman  "  deal 
with  Bichard's  crusade  and  his  return  to  England.  "  Kenil- 
worth  "  is  a  story  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  "  The  Monas- 
tery "  and  "  The  Abbot "  tell  of  the  imprisonment  and  death 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  These  tales  were  the  beginning  of 
the  kind  of  literature  called  "historical  fiction,"  and  are  use- 
ful for  fixing  in  the  mind  the  characteristics  of  the  historical 
periods  with  which  they  deal. 


SIE  WALTER  SCOTT. 


1820]  LITERATURE  34? 

Lord  Byron  became  Scott's  rival  and  surpassed  him  in  the 
field  of  romantic  poetry.  "  Childe  Harold,"  a  poetic  account 
of  historic  scenes  and  incidents  in  Europe,  is  his  best  poem. 
"  I  awoke  one  morning/'  said  Byron  after  its  publication, 
"  and  found  myself  famous." 

William  Wordsworth,  with  Eobert  Southey  and  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge,  was  the  founder  of  the  "  Lake  School "  of 
poetry.  These  poets  lived  at  times  in  the  picturesque  Lake 
region  of  the  northwest.  It  was  their  aim  to  write  simple 
poetry  about  the  people  and  occurrences  of  everyday  life. 
Coleridge's  "Ancient  Mariner"  is  his  most  famous  poem; 
"  To  the  Cuckoo,"  "  The  Green  Linnet "  and  "  The  Daffodils  " 
illustrate  Wordsworth's  notion  of  what  true  poetry  should  be. 

Other  Writers.  Samuel  Johnson,  in  1755,  completed  a 
great  dictionary  of  the  English  language.  Oliver  Goldsmith, 
like  Walter  Scott,  wrote  prose  and  poetry  equally  well.  His 
"  Deserted  Village  "  describes  the  effects  of  the  factory  system 
on  the  country  towns ;  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  "  is  his  mas- 
terpiece in  prose.  David  Hume  and  Edward  Gibbon  were  the 
great  historians  of  the  century.  Hume  wrote  the  "History 
of  England."  Gibbon's  "Decline  and  Pall  of  the  Eoman 
Empire"  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the  field  of  historical 
literature.  William  Eobertson  ranks  with  Hume  as  the 
author  of  a  "  History  of  Scotland."  \ 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How  did  the  French  government  influence  affairs  in  Ireland  during 

this  period?     Illustrate. 

2.  What  was  Napoleon's  plan  for  invading  England?     Why  did  it  fail? 

3.  How  did  the  French  and  English  wars  affect  American  commerce? 

Why?     Explain  the  purpose  of  the  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees 
and   the   Orders   in  Council. 

4.  Why  did  England  take  part  in  the  Peninsular  War? 

5.  Give  the  causes  of  the  war  with  America  in  1812.     What  impor- 

tant question  was  settled  by  it? 

6.  How  did  the  Napoleonic  wars  affect  the  English  people? 


348  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1811 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  NELSON   AT   TRAFALGAR.     Russell,   Nelson,    Chap.    XIV. ;    Edgar, 

Heroes  of  England,  pp.  271-318. 

2.  THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO.     Henty,  One  of  the  Twenty-eighth; 

Fitchett,  Deeds  that  Won  the  Empire,  pp.  223-288. 

3.  THE  BERLIN  DECREE.     Colby,  Sources  of  English  History,  pp.  289- 

292 ;  Green,  Short  History,  pp.  822-3. 

4.  REFORM   OF   THE   CRIMINAL   LAWS.     Hume,    History   of  England 

(Student's  Series),  p.  743;  Gardiner,  Student's  History,  p.  885. 

5.  SIR  JOHN  MOORE.     Creighton,  Stories  from  English  History,  Chap. 

LI. ;  Fitchett,  Fights  for  the  Flag,  pp.  133-157. 

6.  WELLINGTON.     Edgar,  Heroes  of  England,  pp.  336-70. 

I 

D.     THE  STEUGGLE  FOR  EEFORM. 
George  IV.,  1820-1830. 

George  IV.  had  been  in  possession  of  royal  power  since 
his  father's  insanity  began  in  1811 ;  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
was  therefore  marked  by  no  abrupt  changes.  He  was  the 
worst  of  the  Georges,  a  selfish,  wicked  man,  always  in  debt, 
and  caring  only  for  his  own  pleasure.  His  father  had  tried 
to  make  him  mend  his  ways,  but  succeeded  only  in  receiving 
his  hatred. 

A  Conspiracy  to  murder  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  was 
discovered  early  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign.  To  explain 
this  we  shall  go  back  to  the  last  year  of  George  III. 

The  "Manchester  massacre "  (1819)  grew  out  of  the  meet- 
ing of  vast  numbers  of  unemployed  men  in  the  manufacturing 
districts,  who  '  used  to  gather  together  to  talk  over  their 
troubles.  They  had  a  sort  of  uniform,  practiced  military  drill, 
and  carried  banners,  very  much  as  political  parties  do  now. 
Their  banners  bore  such  mottoes  as  these :  "  Union  and 
Strength,"  "  Liberty  and  Fraternity/'  "  Annual  Parliaments, 
and  Universal  Suffrage." 

A  great  meeting  was  held  at  Manchester,  at  which  a  popu- 
lar reform  speaker,  named  Hunt,  was  to  address  the  people. 
A  number  of  soldiers  and  a  regiment  of  cavalry  were  at  hand 


1828]  GEORGE  IV.  349 

to  keep  order.  When  Hunt  rose  to  speak,  one  of  the  magis- 
trates got  a  mistaken  notion  into  his  head  that  the  soldiers 
were  being  attacked,  and  called  upon  the  commander  of  the 
cavalry  to  disperse  the  crowd.  That  officer  understood  that 
he  was  to  lead  a  cavalry  charge  against  them,  and  a  trumpet 
sounded  the  order.  His  men  rode  their  horses  at  full  speed 
into  the  dense  throng  of  men,  women,  and  children,  and  cut 
them  down  with  their  swords,  killing  or  wounding  nearly  a 
hundred. 

Severe  laws  were  soon  passed  by  Parliament  to  prevent 
persons  practicing  military  drill,  carrying  arms,  and  using 
seditious  language.  The  people  thought  they  had  been  badly 
used,  and  their  wrongs  provoked  the  "  Cato  Street  conspir- 
acy." A  dozen  or  more  desperate  men  planned  to  murder 
the  Cabinet  ministers  at  a  certain  meeting  which  was  to  be 
held  at  a  private  house  in  London.  One  of  their  number 
informed  the  government.  The  police  seized  some  of  the  plot- 
ters in  a  building  on  Cato  Street,  and  five  of  them  wgre 
executed. 

Changes  in  Laws.  After  the  excitement  over  this  con- 
spiracy had  died  away,  Parliament  at  last  changed  the  criminal 
laws  so  that  a  hundred  or  more  offenses,  such  as  small  thefts 
and  misdemeanors,  which  before  had  been  punished  by  hang- 
ing, were  now  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment. 

The  duties  on  raw  wool  and  silk  were  lowered  so  that  the 
English  manufacturers  could  get  material  to  keep  their  fac- 
tories going.  Machine  smashing,  however,  was  kept  up.  In 
1826  every  power  loom  in  the  town  of  Blackburn  was  broken 
by  a  mob  of  men  who  ignorantly  thought  machines  the  main 
cause  of  their  misery. 

Two  Great  Reforms  in  Religious  Matters  were  carried 
in  this  reign.  The  first  was  the  repeal  of  the  old  Corporation 
Act  and  of  part  of  the  Test  Act,  passed  in  the  time  of  Charles 
II.,  which  prevented  dissenters  holding  any  office  in  public 


350  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1829 

or  private  corporations.  The  second  reform  was  the  passage 
of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  (1829),  which  allowed 
Catholics  to  sit  in  Parliament  and  to  hold  all  but  a  few  of 
the  highest  offices. 

The  man  who  secured  this  last  reform  was  Daniel  O'Con-- 
nell,  an  Irishman  of  great  eloquence  and  wonderful  influence 
over  men.  He  organized  the  Catholic  Association,  which  soon 
spread  all  through  Ireland,  and  which  created  a  healthful 
public  opinion  by  means  of  a  free  press.  He  worked  faithfully 
in  the  cause  of  Catholic  emancipation,  as  did  also  Eobert  Peel, 
a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  Finally  Wellington,  Avho  was  then 
prime  minister,  announced  to  Parliament  that  the  only  alter- 
native to  Catholic  emancipation  would  be  another  civil  war  in 
Ireland.  After  nearly  three  centuries  of  persecution  and  in- 
justice, the  English  and  Irish  Catholics  at  last  gained  nearly 
equal  rights  with  the  Protestants. 

Parliamentary  Reform  also  was  demanded  by  the  people, 
and  it  was  plain  that  the  question  could  not  be  put  off  much 
longer.  The  great  cities  that  had  sprung  up  through  manu- 
facturing had  no  representatives,  and  people  continued  to 
desert  the  old  country  villages  for  the  more  profitable  work 
in  the  cities.  In  Bute  County,  in  Scotland,  on  one  election 
day,  only  one  man  appeared  to  vote.  He  voted  for  himself 
and  became  a  member  of  Parliament.  Some  villages  had 
disappeared  entirely;  members  for  these  were  selected  by  the 
stronger  party  in  the  Parliament.  It  did  not  seem  right  that 
a  few  men  should  select  all  the  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  that  several  millions  should  have  nothing  to 
say. 

Lord  John  Eussell  now  took  up  the  cause  of  parliamentary 
reform.  He  had  tried  to  take  away  the  representatives 
from  some  boroughs  where  the  votes  were  openly  bought; 
but  the  very  men  who  bought  them  were  members  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  that  body  refused  to  pass  his  bill.  In 


>dL 


1826]  GEORGE  IV.  351- 

1821  he  managed  to  have  the  town  of  Grampound  disfran- 
chised, that  is,  he  had  its  right  to  vote  taken  away,  because  it 
elected  for  its  two  members  the  politicians  who  would  give 
the  most  money.  Lord  Eussell  had  made  a  beginning  in  a 
great  reform. 

The  Great  Influence  of  the  French  Revolution  was 
seen  in  the  reign  of  George  the  Fourth.  All  over  Europe 
it  had  stirred  up  a  war  between  republican  government  and 
monarchical  government.  The  people  in  Portugal,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America  rose  against  their 
kings  and  demanded  a  share  in  the  government.  The  kings 
of  Europe  were  more  frightened  than  at  the  time  of  the 
outbreak  in  France,  for  their  own  people  were  now  against 
them. 

The  Holy  Alliance  was  a  league  of  Kussia,  Austria,  Prus- 
sia, and  France,  to  maintain  the  power  of  kings  in  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe  and  in  their  colonies.  England  refused  to 
join  it.  In  the  Italian  kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sardinia 
the  people  drove  out  their  kings,  but  Austria  sent  a  strong 
army  to  put  down  the  people,  and  made  the  kings  more  abso- 
lute than  ever.  A  revolution  in  Spain  was  put  down  with 
the  aid  of  French  soldiers.  But  Greece,  then  a  province  of 
Turkey,  carried  on  a  struggle  for  freedom  so  long  that  at 
last  England,  France,  and  Eussia  interfered  to  give  her 
independence.  Lord  Byron  and  many  other  Englishmen 
fought  for  the  Greeks  from  the  beginning.  Some  of  his  finest 
poems  are  about  Greek  subjects.  In  the  great  battle  of 
Marathon,  centuries  before,  the  Greeks  had  maintained  their 
independence  against  the  Persians;  and  Byron  wrote: 

"  The  mountains  look  on  Marathon  — 

And  Marathon  looks  on  the  sea ; 
And  musing  there  an  hour  alone, 

I  dreamed  that  Greece  might  yet  be  free ; 
For  standing  on  the  Persians'  grave, 
I  could  not  deem  myself  a  slave." 


352  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1823 

In  Portugal,  the  people  compelled  the  king  to  grant  a  con- 
stitution, providing  for  a  parliament.  Spain  and  France 
threatened  to  restore  the  absolute  power  of  the  king;  but 
England  sent  a  force  to  protect  Portugal  in  her  new  govern- 
ment.^ 

The  Spanish  Colonies  in  America  revolted  when  Na- 
poleon made  his  brother  King  of  Spain,  and  after  a  long  war 
they  became  independent  republics.  The  Holy  Alliance  in 
1823  was  considering  the  question  of  helping  Spain  to  get 
back  her  colonies.  Canning,  who  was  then  prime  minister 
of  England,  proposed  that  the  United  States  should  join  Eng- 
land in  warning  the  Holy  Alliance  to  let  the  Spanish  colonies 
alone.  But  the  United  States  government  preferred  to  make 
its  declaration  alone.  President  James  Monroe  in  his  mes- 
sage to  Congress,  December  2,  1823,  announced  that  if  the 
European  powers  should  make  any  attempt  to  oppress  or 
control  any  independent  country  in  America,  the  United 
States  would  consider  it  an  unfriendly  act.  This  meant  that 
the  United  States  would  go  to  war,  if  necessary,  to  resist  any 
attack  by  the  Holy  Alliance  on  the  Spanish  republics.  The 
Holy  Alliance  decided  not  to  offend  both  England  and  the 
United  States,  but  to  let  the  new  republics  alone. 

The  Navigation  Law  was  repealed  in  1823.  This  law 
said  that  no  goods  could  be  brought  to  England  except  in 
English  ships.  The  Americans  had  made  a  similar  law  in 
regard  to  England.  The  result  was  that  English  ships  might 
come  and  carry  away  American  products,  but  were  not  al- 
lowed to  bring  any  goods  with  them.  This  made  the  cost  of 
carrying  freight  twice  as  high,  and  both  nations  lost  money 
by  it. 

Along  with  reforms  in  politics  and  reforms  in  commerce 
came  improvements  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  means 
of  transportation. 

The  First  Railroads  were  built,  about  1825,  by  George 


1825] 


GEORGE  IV. 


353 


Stephenson,  a  poor  Northumberland  coal  miner.  He  was 
employed  in  the  coal  mines  in  taking  care  of  the  pumping 
engine.  While  working  at  this,  he  thought  of  a  plan  of 
putting  an  engine  on  wheels,  and  making  it  turn  the  wheels ; 
and  he  succeeded  in  making  such  a  locomotive.  This  was 
able  to  do  the  work  of  drawing  the  coal  cars  far  more  cheaply 
and  easily  than  it  could  be  done  by  horses.  He 
next  got  some  rich  men  to  help  him,  and  built  a 
short  railroad  between  Stockton  and  Darlington. 
Later,  the  merchants  of  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester assisted  him  in  building  a  road  connecting 
those  cities.  To  build  a  railroad,  the  permission 
of  the  Parliament  had  to  be  ob- 
tained. Stephenson  was  asked  how  he 
expected  to  build  a  railroad  over 
valleys  and  through  hills.  His 
answer  was  like  that  of  Brindley 
on  a  like  occasion :  "  I 
can  not  tell  how  I  will 
do  it,  but  I  will  do  it." 

A  report  on  the  rail- 
road  plan,   read   in   the 

House  of  Commons,  ended  like  this :  "  As  for  those  who  specu- 
late on  making  railways  take  the  place  of  canals,  wagons, 
stage-coaches,  and  post-chaises,  throughout  the  kingdom,  we 
deem  them  and  their  visionary  schemes  unworthy  of  notice. 
It  is  a  gross  exaggeration  to  say  that  a  locomotive  could  be 
made  to  go  fifteen  miles  an  hour,  and  even  if  it  should,  the 
danger  of  bursting  boilers  and  broken  wheels  would  be  so 
great  that  the  people  would  suffer  themselves  to  be  fired  off 
on  one  of  Congreve's  rockets  about  as  soon  as  they  would  trust 
themselves  on  a  machine  going  at  such  a  rate  of  speed."  But 
the  bill  allowing  the  railroad  to  be  built  passed,  and  Stephen- 
son's  new  locomotive,  the  "  Kocket,"  was  found  to  be  able  to 


THE  ROCKET. 


354  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1830 

go  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  miles  an  hour  without  hurting 
any  one. 

During  the  next  twenty-five  years  ten  thousand  miles  of 
railroads  were  built  and  equipped  in  England  at  a  cost  of 
$2,000,000,000. 

Better  Wagon  Roads  also  were  built  at  this  time.  A 
Scotchman  named  McAdam  discovered  how  to  make  a  road 
by  covering  the  earth  with  broken  stone  to  a  depth  of  six  or 
eight  inches.  The  wagon  wheels  would  gradually  force  the 
bits  of  stone  together  so  as  to  form  a  hard  surface.  He  also 
made  the  road  higher  in  the  center  than  on  the  sides,  and  dug 
ditches  to  carry  off  the  water.  Eoads  made  in  this  way  are 
still  said  to  be  macadamized. 

George  IV.  Died  in  the  summer  of  1830.  He  was  not 
missed,  except  agreeably.  He  had  squandered  millions  of 
the  people's  money,  and  had  stood  in  the  way  of  every  reform. 
Scarcely  anybody  in  England  had  a  good  thing  to  say  about 
him.  His  brother  William,  called  the  "  Sailor  King,"  suc- 
ceeded him. 

William  IV.,  1830-1837. 

The  New  King  was  a  bluff,  hearty  old  man  of  sixty-five 
when  he  began  to  reign.  His  life  had  been  spent  in  the 
navy.  He  was  a  friend  to  the  people,  and  was  certain  to 
use  his  efforts  in  their  behalf. 

The  Reform  of  the  Parliament  was  now  the  one  great 
question.  Action  on  it  was  hastened  by  another  revolution 
in  France.  The  French  king,  Charles  X.,  had  disagreed 
with  the  Chambers,  as  the  French  parliament  was  called,  and 
had  tried  to  seize  absolute  power.  The  people  took  up  arms 
against  him,  the  royal  army  deserted  to  their  side,  and  the 
king  had  to  flee  from  the  country. 

When  the  English  people  heard  of  this  change  in  France, 
they  felt  like  rising  up  and  doing  away  with  the  Tory  minis- 


1832]  WILLIAM  IV.  355 

try  and  the  "  rotten  boroughs  "  by  force.  They  might  have 
done  so,  if  the  House  of  Commons  had  not  begun  now  to 
do  it  for  them.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  was  prime  minister, 
and  as  he  said  there  should  be  no  reform  at  all,  the  House  of 
Commons  would  not  support  him  and  he  was  forced  to 
resign. 

A  New  Whig  Cabinet  was  now  chosen.  Petitions  poured 
in  upon  it  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  urging  reform. 
A  reform  bill  was  drawn  up  by  Lord  Eussell  and  introduced 
into  the  House  of  Commons.  Many  boroughs  were  to  be 
entirely  disfranchised,  and  many  others  were  to  send  one 
member  instead  of  two.  Most  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  places  thus  vacated  were  to  be  given  to  the  counties  and 
large  towns  of  England.  When  it  became  evident  that  the 
House  would  not  pass  the  bill,  the  Cabinet  had  the  Parliament 
dissolved  and  a  new  election  ordered.  The  Whig,  or  "  Lib- 
eral "  party,  as  it  began  to  be  called,  was  sure  of  support  from 
the  country.  "The  bill,  and  nothing  but  the  bill"  became 
the  rallying  cry  at  the  elections.  The  Eeform  Bill,  slightly 
amended,  was  passed  by  the  new  House  of  Commons  by  a 
large  majority. 

The  Creation  of  Peers.  The  majority  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  however,  was  opposed  to  the  bill.  This  brought  mat- 
ters to  a  standstill.  The  Cabinet  asked  the  king  to  create 
enough  new  peers  to  carry  the  bill,  and  resigned  when  he  de- 
clined to  do  so.  Before  the  king  could  get  any  one  to  take 
the  office  of  prime  minister  he  had  to  promise  to  create  the 
new  peers  if  necessary.  When  the  Lords  found  that  new  peers 
would  be  created  to  pass  the  bill,  some  of  those  that  were  op" 
posed  to  it  remained  away,  and  the  Eeform  Bill  became  a  law 
June  4,  1832. 

Since  the  time  of  William  IV.  it  has  been  the  custom, 
whenever  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  House  of  Lords  are 
unalterably  opposed,  for  the  king's  ministers  to  create  enough 

NlVER  — «A.  ' 


-a. 


USE  OF  HANOVE 


[183k 


peers,  or  declare  such  intention,  to  compel  the  House  of  Lords  " 
to  pass  the  measure  desired  by  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  Reform  Bill  in  its  final  form  not  only  abolished  the 
rotten  boroughs,  thus  doing  away  with  old  bribery  system, 
but  it  gave  forty-six  of  the  large  cities  the  right  to  elect 
J/)*«')  sixty-eight  members  of  Parliament,  and  it  added  thirty  to 
the  representatives  of  English  counties,  and  eleven  to  the 
representatives  from  Ireland  and  Scotland. 


THE  PRESENT  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

It  also  cured  a  greater  evil  than  the  rotten  boroughs. 
Under  the  old  system  the  right  to  vote  was  very  unequally 
distributed.  In  some  towns  all  the  freemen  voted;  in  others 
none  at  all.  ^The  new  law  gave  a  vote  to  every  man  living 
in  a  town  or  borough  who  paid  an  annual  rent  of  $50. » In 
the  country  all  those  owning  or  leasing  a  certain  amount  of 
land  could  vote.  The  bill  added  over  half  a  million  voters  to 
the  list.  The  nobility  and  the  landholders  were  no  longer  to 
have  control  of  the  lawmaking  machinery,  which  they  had  so 
long  used  for  their  own  advantage.  Now  the  great  "  middle 


1833]  WILLIAM  IV.  35?' 

class"  of  England,  the  merchants,  mechanics,  and  farmers, 
were  to  control  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  New  Reformed  Parliament  met  in  January,  1833. 
The  Liberal  party  had  a  large  majority,  but  it  was  found  that 
the  members  were  older  and  wiser  men  than  those  of  former 
Parliaments;  and  none  of  the  bad  results  that  had  been  pre- 
dicted by  Wellington  and  other  members  of  the  House  of 
Lords  came  to  pass. 

Slavery  Abolished.  The  slave  trade  had  been  stopped  in 
1807.  Since  then  it  had  been  shown,  by  some  members  of 
Parliament  that  slavery  did  not  pay;  for  it  cost  more  to  raise 
sugar  in  the  West  Indies,  where  slave  labor  was  used,  than 
it  did  in  the  East  Indies,  where  wages  were  paid.  In  1833 
slavery  was  abolished  in  all  the  colonies.  The  owners  received 
$100,000,000  to  compensate  them  for  their  loss.  It  was  soon 
found  that  slavery  had  been  only  an  evil,  and  that  the  slave- 
holding  colonies  benefited  by  the  change. 

Other  Excellent  Laws  passed  by  this  Parliament  met 
with  general  approval.  One  of  these  relieved  the  Irish  Cath- 
olics from  paying  certain  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  English 
Church.  Another  regulated  the  employment  of  children  in 
factories,  the  first  law  of  the  kind  made  in  England.  An- 
other forbade  flogging  in  the  army.  The  first  national  ap- 
propriation of  $100,000  was  made  for  the  aid  of  common 
schools.  An  important  change  was  made  in  the  poor  laws. 
England  was  overrun  with  paupers  and  vagrants.  The  old 
laws  had  encouraged  pauperism  by  giving  too  much  help. 
The  new  laws  were  stricter.  Less  help  was  given,  and  the 
poor  who  really  needed  help  were  helped  in  such  a  way  that 
they  might  be  able  to  help  themselves. 

The  Monopoly  of  the  East  India  Company  was  taken 
away  by  the  Eeformed  Parliament  in  1833,  and  the  Eastern 
trade  was  thrown  open  to  all.  This  was  found  to  be  a  great 
advantage  to  the  country.  Now  all  merchants  could  buy 


358  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1837 

and  sell  in  India  and  China,  and  in  less  than  ten  years  three 
times  as  many  British  goods  were  sold.  The  company  stopped 
carrying  on  trade,  but  continued  to  govern  the  country  as  be- 
fore (p.  316)  until  after  the  great  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857. 
Its  rule  had  been  greatly  extended  at  the  expense  of  the 
Mahrattas  and  the  Burmese,  and  now  included  more  than  half 
of  India. 

"  Good  King  William  "  had  passed  his  three  score  and  ten 
years,  and  died  in  1837.  Up  to  this  time,  the  kings  of  Eng- 
land, beginning  with  George  I.,  had  been  rulers  of  Hanover 
also.  But  it  was  a  law  in  Hanover  that  only  males  could 
succeed  to  the  throne;  therefore  when  William's  niece,  Vic- 
toria, became  Queen  of  England,  his  younger  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  became  King  of  Hanover,  thus  sep- 
arating the  two  countries. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Account  for  the  opposition  to  the  Reform  Bill.     How  was  it  finally 

passed?     What  evils  did  it  cure? 

2.  What  does  the  demand   for  the   Reform   Bill   teach   us   about  the 

English  people?     Why  did  the  Lords  oppose  it? 

3.  Which  law  passed  by  the  first  Reformed  Parliament  do  you  think 

best?     Why? 

4.  How  did  the  revolutions  in  France  affect  the  English  people? 
5'.  How  did  the  English  secure  control  of  India? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

• 

1.  GEORGE  STEPHENSON.     Smiles,  Life  of  Stephenson;  Wright,  Stones 

of  American  Progress. 

2.  THE   EAST   INDIA   COMPANY.     Hume,    History   of  England    (Stu- 

dent's Series)    (see  index)  ;   Sarkar,  History  of  India. 

3.  THE  REFORM  BILL  OF  1832.     McCarthy,  England  in  the  XlXth 

Century,  Chaps.  IX.,  X. 

4.  DANIEL    O'CoNNELL.     Lawless,    Story    of    Ireland,    pp.    379-389; 

Mowry,  First  Steps  in  the  History  of  England,  Chap.  XXVI. 


XII.     THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVEK  (CONTINUED). 


A.    FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  VICTORIA  TO  THE  END  OF  THE 
INDIAN  MUTINY  IN  1858. 

Victoria,  1837-1901. 

At  Kensington  Palace,  in  1830,  the  year  of  the  coronation 
of  William  IV.,  his  eleven-year-old  niece,  Victoria,  was  study- 
ing a  table  of  the  kings  of 
England.    "Mamma,"   she 
exclaimed,  "I  do  not  see 
who  is  to  be  the  next  sov- 
ereign of  England,  unless 
it  is  myself ."    Her  mother 
had  never  told  her  that  she 
was  to  become   Queen  of 
England,  but  allowed  her 
to  make  the  discovery  for 
herself.     Her   father    had 
died  when  she  was  an  in- 
fant,   but    the    wise    and 
careful    training    she    re- 
ceived   from    her    mother 
bore  fruit  in  the  guiding 
principle  of  her  rule,  the 
determination  to  do  right. 
Victoria's  Marriage  took  place  three  years  after  her  acces- 
sion to  the  throne.     Her  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Co- 
burg  and  Gotha,  became  her  husband.     The  marriage  was 
highly  pleasing  to  the  people  of  England,  chiefly  because  it 

359 


ELEVEN-TEAR-OLD  VICTORIA. 


360  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1837 

was  one  of  real  affection  and  not  for  political  reasons.  Prince 
Albert  received  the  title  of  Prince  Consort,  an  honorary  dis- 
tinction conferred  upon  him  as  the  queen's  husband,  but  the 
sovereign  power  remained  solely  with  the  queen.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  was  made  Secretary  to 
the  Queen,  a  very  important  office.  He  proved  a  wise  and 
prudent  counselor  and  gave  his  whole  attention  to  the  interests 
of  the  country.  He  was  the  first  man  in  England  to  see  that 
the  selfishness  and  strife  of  employers  and  laborers  was  hurt- 
ful to  both.  "  Depend  upon  it,"  he  said,  "  the  interests  of  the 
classes  are  the  same,  and  it  is  only  ignorance  that  prevents 
their  uniting  for  each  other's  advantage."  He  said  that  what- 
ever made  the  laborer  better  and  happier  would  make  the  em- 
ployer better  off,  too. 

"  The  Victorian  Age  "  was  the  most  progressive  period 
in  the  history  of  England.  More  was  done  than  ever  before 
to  promote  the  comfort  and  enlightenment  of  the  people  and 
to  give  to  every  one  a  voice  in  the  government.  The  charac- 
ter and  reign  of  the  queen  afforded  an  example  of  virtue  and 
goodness  to  the  nation.  Tennyson  says  of  her : 

"  Her  court  was  pure ;  her  life  serene ; 
God  gave  her  peace ;  her  land  reposed ; 
A  thousand  claims  to  reverence  closed 
In  her  as  Mother,  Wife,  and  Queen. 

"  And  statesmen  at  her  council  met, 

Who  knew  the  seasons  when  to  take 
Occasion  by  the  hand,  and  make 
The  bounds  of  freedom  wider  yet 

"  By  shaping  some  august  decree, 

Which  kept  her  throne  unshaken  still, 
Broad-based  upon  her  people's  will, 
And  compassed  by  the  inviolate  sea." 

The  Chartist  Movement  was  one  of  the  early  troubles  of 
the  reign.    It  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  workingmen 


1848]  VICTORIA  361 

to  get  political  rights.  Daniel  O'Connell  helped  them  to  draw 
up  a  list  of  their  demands  which  was  called  the  "  People's 
Charter."  Those  who  favored  it  were  known  as  Chartists. 

The  People's  Charter  contained  six  demands:  manhood 
suffrage,  vote  by  ballot,  annual  Parliaments,  the  division  of 
the  country  into  equal  electoral  districts,  the  removal  of  the 
property  qualification  for  members  of  Parliament,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  salaries  to  members  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Some  of  the  Chartists  called  themselves  "  physical  force," 
others,  "moral  force"  Chartists.  The  "moral  force"  men 
held  meetings,  formed  clubs  for  discussion,  and  published 
newspapers,  in  order  to  convince  others  of  the  truth  of  their 
beliefs.  The  "  physical  force  "  men,  to  show  their  strength, 
were  to  bring  a  petition  to  Parliament  signed  by  five  million 
names,  and  carried  by  a  million  of  the  signers.  There  was 
great  alarm  in  London  and  special  care  was  taken  to  prevent 
violence.  But  the  monster  procession  dwindled  down  to  a 
dozen,  and  the  monster  petition  was  found  to  be  filled  with 
names  gathered  from  old  directories  and  gravestones.  This 
ended  the  influence  of  the  "physical  force"  men  (1848).  In 
time,  however,  all  the  demands  of  the  charter,  except  annual 
Parliaments  and  the  payment  of  members,  were  practically 
granted  by  acts  of  Parliament. 

The  "  Penny  Post "  of  England  owes  its  origin  to  Mr. 
Eowland  Hill..  Before  1840  the  charge  for  carrying  a  letter 
was  from  one  to  two  shillings,  and  was  paid  by  the  receiver. 
That  was  a  large  sum  for  the  poor  people,  and  few  could 
afford  to  have  letters  written  to  them.  The  idea  of  reform- 
ing the  postal  system  was  suggested  to  Mr.  Hill  by  a  story 
told  by  Coleridge,  one  of  the  "  Lake  poets." 

One  day  as  Coleridge  was  walking  past  a  cottage  in  the 
Lake  region,  a  postman  brought  a  letter  to  the  door.  The 
poor  woman  to  whom  the  letter  was  addressed  said  she  could 
not  pay  the  postage  and  returned  it  to  him.  Coleridge  kindly 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVEE  [1840 

paid  it  for  her,  as  she  said  the  letter  was  from  her  brother, 
who  had  gone  to  work  in  London.  She  was  unwilling  that 
the  poet  should  pay  the  money,  and  after  the  postman  had 
gone,  she  showed  him  that  the  letter  contained  only  a  blank 
sheet.  She  said  that  her  brother  had  adopted  this  method  of 
letting  her  know  that  all  was  well  with  him. 

The  story  set  Eowland  Hill  to  thinking.  He  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  if  postage  were  made  cheaper  so  many  more 
letters  would  be  written  that  more  money  would  come  to  the 
government  than  under  the  high  rates.  So  many  petitions 
came,  asking  for  the  trial  of  Hill's  plan,  that  the  Parliament, 
as  an  experiment,  tried  a  four-penny  rate.  Soon  after  this, 
the  rate  was  made  a  penny  per  half  ounce.  The  result 
showed  that  Hill  was  right.  The  sender  now  paid  the  post- 
age by  putting  a  stamp  on  the  letter.  Since  that  time,  every 
country  in  the  civilized  world  has  adopted  this  plan. 

Dominion  of  Canada.  A  rebellion  in  Canada  was  going  on 
when  the  queen's  reign  began.  In  both  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  the  upper  house,  or  council,  was  appointed  by  the 
sovereign  of  England.  The  French  people  of 
Lower  Canada  were  jealous  of  the  English, 
and  wanted  to  choose  the  council  themselves, 
and  refused  to  pay 
their  salaries.  The 
rebellion  was  put 
down,  and  peace  was 
made  by  joining  the 
two  provinces  into 
one  and  bv  givm0"  it  PARLIAMENT  BUILDINGS,  OTTAWA,  CANADA. 

a  freer  government.  Further  jealousy,  however,  led  to  the 
adoption  of  a  new  plan  about  thirty  years  later.  The  two 
provinces  were  again  separated,  under  the  names  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec,  for  purposes  of  local  government;  but  together 
with  other  North  American  provinces  they  were  formed  into 


1843]  VICTORIA  363 

a  federal  union,  called  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  with  a  gen- 
eral government  nearly  independent  of  Great  Britain. 

An  important  event  near  the  beginning  of  the  reign  led  to 
the  closer  connection  of  England  and  America.  Samuel 
Cunard  established  the  first  regular  line  of  steamships  between 
Great  Britain  and  America  (1840). 

The  "  Opium  War  "  was  fought  to  compel  China  to  al- 
low English  merchants  to  import  opium  into  the  country. 
The  Chinese  government  had  forbidden  trade  in  opium,  on  ac- 
count of  the  bad  effects  of  its  use  upon  the  people.  But 
opium  was  a  leading  production  of  India,  and  after  the 
Indian  trade  was  thrown  open  to  all,  there  were  many  British 
merchants  who  made  a  business  of  selling  the  drug  in  China. 
The  Chinese  government  seized  a  quantity  of  the  opium,  and 
took  means  to  prevent  any  more  being  landed.  The  British 
began  war  at  once,  in  1839.  The  Chinese  were  defeated,  and 
were  obliged  to  surrender  the  island  of  Hongkong  and  open 
five  important  ports  to  British  trade.  Besides  this,  they  were 
compelled  to  pay  $20,000,000  for  the  opium  destroyed,  and 
the  expenses  of  the  war. 

The  "Eastern  Question"  also  attracted  much  attention. 
As  it  is  very  important,  let  us  see  how  England  is  concerned 
in  it.  A  glance  at  a  map  of  Europe  will  show  you  that 
Turkey  controls  the  entrance  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  favor- 
ably situated  to  send  ships  into  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
If  a  strong  nation,  like  Russia,  should  get  control  of  Con- 
stantinople, she  might  be  able  to  control  both  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  Mediterranean,  thus  cutting  off  England  from  her 
East  Indian  possessions.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  for  Eng- 
land to  have  Constantinople  in  the  hands  of  a  weak  nation. 
But  Turkey,  through  bad  government  and  the  unjust  treat- 
ment of  her  Christian  subjects,  had  come  to  be  disliked  by  all 
Christian  nations,  particularly  Eussia,  since  the  illtreated 
Christians  are  members  of  the  Eussian  or  Greek  Catholic 


364  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1839 

Church.  The  "question,"  therefore,  is  this:  If  Turkey  is 
to  be  driven  out  of  Europe,  what  nation  shall  have  her  terri- 
tory, especially  the  part  bordering  on  the  Bosphorus? 

Mehemet  Ali,  the  ruler  of  Egypt,  was  one  of  the  vassals  of 
the  Turkish  sultan,  but  had  grown  stronger  than  his  master. 
He  had  conquered  Syria,  and  had  defeated  every  Turkish  army 
sent  against  him.  In  1839  a  second  war  began  between 
Mehemet  and  the  sultan.  The  Turkish  fleet  went  over  to 
the  Egyptians,  and  if  Mehemet  were  allowed  to  go  on  he 
would  soon  be  in  possession  of  Constantinople  itself.  It  did 
not  suit  the  nations  of  Europe  to  have  Turkey  either  too 
strong  or  too  weak.  So  England,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Eus- 
sia  made  Mehemet  give  up  his  Syrian  conquests  and  let  the 
Turks  alone.  France  was  not  invited  to  take  part  in  the 
affair,  and  became  very  angry  with  England  on  account  of 
the  slight.  The  truth  was  that  France  was  friendly  to  Egypt, 
over  which  she  hoped  to  have  great  influence. 

Lord  Melbourne,  the  premier,  with  his  cabinet,  was  forced 
to  retire  in  1841. 

His  name  suggests  the  Australian  city  named  after  him, 
founded  in  the  first  year  of  Victoria's  reign  (p.  401).  Aus- 
tralia was  first  seen  by  Captain  Cook  in  1720.  The  first  set- 
tlement was  made  in  New  South  Wales  at  the  time  of  our 
Eevolutionary  War.  For  fifty  years  it  was  used  as  a  place 
to  which  to  banish  criminals.  In  1803  Tasmania,  too,  was 
occupied.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  it  was  discov- 
ered that  sheep  would  thrive  in  the  Australian  climate.  In 
the  year  1851  gold  was  found  and  immigrants  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  hurried  there  in  search  of  wealth.  The  growth 
of  Australia  was  rapid.  Five  provinces  grew  up,  which  were 
finally,  with  Tasmania,  joined  in  a  federal  government  like 
that  of  Canada.  (1901).  New  Zealand  was  occupied  in  1838, 
and  became  another  flourishing  British  colony. 

Sir  Robert  Peel  became  prime  minister  on  Melbourne's 


1842]  VICTORIA  365 

retirement,  and  held  office  for  five  years.  Although  Peel  was 
a  Conservative,  or  Tory,  he  favored  a  further  reduction  of  the 
duty  on  imports.  He  found  that  by  lowering  the  tax  business 
was  increased  so  much  that  the  government  received  more 
money  than  before.  The  manufacturers  bought  their  supplies 
more  cheaply,  and  furnished  more  employment  for  labor. 

The  Retreat  from  Kabul.  Terrible  news  from  India 
reached  England  the  year  after  Peel  entered  office.  The 
rugged  mountain  passes  of  Afghanistan  are  the  gateway  to 
India  from  the  north.  Eussia  being  in  power  at  the  north  end 
of  the  gateway,  and  England  at  the  south  end,  it  behooved  each 
nation  to  look  to  the  character  of  the  "  gate  keeper/7  Eussia 
had  sought  the  alliance  of  Dost  Mohammed,  who  had  lately 
driven  from  his  throne  in  Kabul  the  old  "gate  keeper,"  the 
Shah  Soojah.  The  governor-general  of  India  thought  it  good 
policy  to  send  an  army  to  Afghanistan  to  set  up  Shah  Soojah 
again.  This  was  done.  But  the  Afghans  would  not  have 
Soojah,  and  rebelled.  They  surrounded  the  English  force 
and  compelled  them  to  make  an  agreement  to  return  to  India. 

Dost  Mohammed's  son,  Akbar  Khan,  was  now  leader  of  the 
Afghans.  The  English  commanders  were  cowardly  and  in- 
competent, and  foolishly  gave  up  their  arms  to  Akbar,  on 
condition  of  being  allowed  to  retreat  in  safety.  They  were 
15,000  in  number,  among  them  4,000  English  soldiers,  the 
rest  being  natives  of  India,  with  some  women  and  children. 
It  was  winter,  and  ice  and  snow  covered  all  the  country.  In 
spite  of  Akbar's  orders,  the  Afghans  lined  the  heights  along 
the  roads  where  the  English  had  to  pass,  and  shot  down  hun- 
dreds. Akbar  now  took  charge  of  the  women  and  children, 
and  the  English  advanced  to  the  next  pass.  But  the  Afghans 
kept  up  their  attacks  until  all  of  the  English  force  were  killed, 
except  one  man,  who  from  weakness  lagged  behind  the  rest 
and  so  escaped  to  tell  the  awful  tale. 

General  Pollock  afterwards  marched  to  Kabul,  took  revenge 


366  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1842 

upon  the  Afghans,  and  recovered  the  prisoners  in  Akbar's 
charge.  But  Dost  Mohammed  was  sent  back  to  reign  in  Ka- 
bul ;  for  it  was  now  discovered,  what  should  have  been  learned 
before,  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  force  a  king  upon  an  un- 
willing people,  j 

""^fee  Corn  Laws  now  occupied  the  attention  of  the  ministry 
at  home.  The  duty  on  imported  grain,  as  fixed  by  the  "  corn 
laws  "  then  in  force,  was  designed  to  keep  the  price  up  to  two 
or  three  dollars  a  bushel  for  the  benefit  of  the  landholders. 
The  higher  the  price  of  wheat,  the  more  rent  they  could  get 
for  the  land  on  which  the  wheat  was  raised.  But  the  poor  peo- 
ple who  bought  the  bread  had  to  pay  the  rent  in  the  end. 

An  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  formed  by  the  manu- 
facturers in  Manchester,  the  leaders  of  whom  were  Richard 
Cobden,  John  Bright,  and  Charles  Villiers.  Cobden  had  tra\  • 
eled  widely,  and  understood  matters  connected  with  commerce. 
Both  he  and  Bright  were  accomplished  speakers  and  writers, 
and  they  soon  made  many  people  in  England  think  as  they 
did  about  the  corn  laws. 

An  Irish  Famine,  coming  at  this  time,  added  strength  to 
the  demand  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws.  Half  the  people 
of  Ireland  had  come  to  depend  for  food  almost  entirely  on 
the  potato  crop.  In  the  fall  of  1845  a  long  continuance  of 
cold,  wet  weather  caused  the  potatoes  to  rot  in  the  ground. 
The  entire  crop  was  a  failure.  A  great  cry  went  up  to  open  the 
ports  to  food  from  abroad.  Peel,  the  prime  minister,  decided 
that  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  should  not  be  put  off  any 
longer.  But  the  landlords  made  great  opposition.  An  oppos- 
ing party  was  formed,  led  by  Benjamin  Disraeli,  called  the 
Protectionist  Party  because  they  wanted  to  protect  the  English 
farmers.  In  spite  of  the  Protectionists,  a  law  was  passed, 
through  the  efforts  of  Peel  and  Lord  John  Eussell,  which  left 
a  light  tax  on  grain  for  a  few  years,  and  then  took  it  off  alto- 
gether. Food  was  at  last  untaxed  in  Great  Britain. 


1854]  VICTORIA  367 

This  change,  however/ came  too  late  for  the  starving  Irish. 
Large  amounts  of  money  were  raised  for  their  relief,  but  the 
famine  was  so  widespread  that  enough  food  could  not  be 
brought  in  time.  The  people  streamed  toward  the  towns  and 
villages  for  help,  and  died  in  heaps  by  the  wayside.  When  the 
famine  ended  it  was  found  that  the  population  of  Ireland 
had  sunk  from  eight  to  six  millions.  Of  the  two  millions  lost, 
about  half  had  left  the  country,  many  of  them  going  to  the 
United  States. 

Free  Trade.  The  removal  of  the  duty  from  food  and  raw 
materials  was  followed  up  in  1860  and  1872  by  admitting  all 
goods  free  of  duty,  except  liquors,  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco, 
thus  making  England  practically  a  free-trade  country. 

The  First  World's  Fair  was  held  in  England  in  1851. 
The  plan  was  thought  of  and  carried  out  by  Prince  Albert, 
who  made  the  opening  speech.  An  immense  building  of 
glass  and  iron,  called  the  Crystal  Palace,  covering  nine- 
teen acres,  was  erected  for  it  in  London.  The  nations  of  the 
earth  sent  exhibits.  Alfred  Tennyson  wrote  an  ode  which  was 
sung  at  the  opening. 

"  Uplift  a  thousand  voices  full  and  sweet, 

In  this  wide  hall  with  earth's  invention  stored, 
Aud  praise  the  invisible  universal  Lord, 

Who  lets  once  more  in  peace  the  nations  meet 
Where  Science,  Art,  and  Labor  have  outpoured 

Their  myriad  horns  of  plenty  at  our  feet." 

The  Crimean  War  came  from  an  attempt  to  solve  the 
Eastern  question  (p.  363).  It  was  so  called  because  the 
greater  part  of  the  fighting  was  done  in  the  peninsula  of 
Crimea  in  the  south  of  Eussia. 

The  czar  Nicholas  I.  had  taken  upon  himself  the  task  of  pro- 
tecting the  Christians  who  were  under  Turkish  rule.  He 
now  proposed  to  England  that  they  divide  the  territory  of  the 
"  sick  man,"  as  he  called  Turkey,  between  them,  and  put  him 


368 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1854 


out  of  the  way  by  a  quick  war.  When  the  English  ministers 
declined  this,  he  at  once  sent  his  armies  to  the  Danube  and  in- 
vaded Turkish  territory.  The  Turks  defended  their  frontier, 
but  their  fleet  was  destroyed.  This  left  the  Black  Sea  in  the 
control  of  Eussia,  and  Constantinople  would  soon  be  attacked. 
At  this  point  (1854)  England  and  France  joined  Turkey 
in  the  war  in  order  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  by  pre- 
venting Eussia  from  gaining  too  much  territory.  The  Eus- 
sians  had  in  the  Crimea  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  known 
as  Sebastopol.  This  fortress  afforded  protection  to  the  Eus- 
sian  navy,  and  its  capture  would  practically  end  the  war, 
since  it  would  leave  the  Eussian  fleet  at  the  mercy  of  the  com- 
bined navies  of  France  and  England. 

The   English   and    French  landed    a   combined    force    of 
64,000  men  on  the  coast  north  of  Sebastopol.    On  the  inarch 

southward  the  allies 
crossed  the  river  Alma 
and  drove  the  enemy  out 
of  their  intrenchments. 
Soon  the  armies  took  up 
their  positions  around 
Sebastopol.  The  Bus- 
sians  fiercely  attacked 
them  near  Balaklava, 
October  25,  1854,  and 
were  gallantly  repulsed. 
Some  guns  had  been  taken  by  the  Eussians  in  cheir  attack. 
Lord  Cardigan,  who  commanded  a  brigade  of  light  cavalry 
numbering  about  600,  was  ordered  to  "retake  the  guns." 
The  officer  who  carried  the  order  supposed  that  the  guns  re- 
ferred to  were  those  of  the  Eussians  a  mile  or  more  down  the 
road.  To  take  these,  meant  to  charge  into  the  center  of  the 
Eussian  army  of  30,000  men,  along  a  road  lined  with  the  guns 
of  the  enemy.  The  order  was  given  to  advance.  The  men 


OF 


Sebastopolj^j-Ink 

Balaklavit 
B      L     A      c 


20        40        60        80 


THE  CRIMEA. 


1854) 


VICTORIA 


369 


THE  LIGHT  CAVALRY  CHARGE  AT  BALAKLAVA. 

rode  the  length  of  the  Eussian  lines,  drove  them  from  the 
guns,  and  rode  back  —  but  "not  the  six  hundred."  Only  198 
returned.  This  famous  deed  has  been  made  immortal  by 
Tennyson's  poem,  "  The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  " : 

Half  a  league,  half  a  league, 
Half  a  league  onward, 
All  in  the  valley  of  Death 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 
"  Forward,  the  Light  Brigade  ! 
Charge  for  the  guns !  "  he  said : 
Into  the  valley  of  Death 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 

"  Forward,  the  Light  Brigade !  " 
Was  there  a  man  dismayed? 
Not  tho'  the  soldier  knew 

Some  one  had  blundered. 
Theirs  not  to  make  reply, 
Theirs  not  to  reason  why, 
Theirs  but  to  do  and  die : 
Into  the  valley  of  Death 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 


370  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1854 

Cannon  to  right  of  them, 
Cannon  to  left  of  them, 
Cannon  in  front  of  them 

Volleyed  and  thundered ; 
Stormed  at  with  shot  and  shell, 
Boldly  they  rode  and  well, 
Into  the  jaws  of  Death, 
Into  the  mouth  of  Hell 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 


When  can  their  glory  fade? 
O,  the  wild  charge  they  made ! 

All  the  world  wondered. 
Honor  the  charge  they  made! 
Honor  the  Light  Brigade, 

Noble  six  hundred ! 

Thousand^  of  the  English,  soldiers  fell  sick  and  were  sent 
to  the  hospitals  at  Scutari.  When  the  severe  Eussian  winter 
came  on,  it  was  found  that  not  enough  provision  had  been 
made  for  the  comfort  of  the  soldiers  and  for  the  care  of  the 
wounded.  The  hospital  supplies  were  in  the  holds  of  ships  off 
Sebastopol,  and  the  tents,  blankets,  and  clothing  for  the  sol- 
diers had  been  lost  in  a  storm  that  wrecked  the  fleet  of  trans- 
ports. Some  curious  blunders  were  made.  A  cargo  of  boots 
were  all  for  the  left  foot,  and  mules  for  the  hauling  of  sup- 
plies were  delivered  at  posts  in  the  hands  of  the  Eussians. 
The  havoc  made  by  the  cold  and  the  storms  of  winter  killed 
five  times  as  many  men  as  the  bullets  of  the  Eussians.  The 
emperor  Nicholas  was  accustomed  to  say  that  there  were 
two  generals  on  whom  he  could  always  depend,  General  Jan- 
jiary^aodGeneral  February. 

Florence  Nightingale,  an  English  lady  who  had  made  a 
special  study  of  hospital  work,  went  to  Scutari,  with  other 
women,  and  wrought  marvelous  changes  in  the  methods  of  car- 
ing for  the  sick.  This  was  the  first  time  that  women  were 
regularly  employed  as  nurses  in  war. 


1857]  VICTORIA  371 

Sebastopol  was  Taken  in  the  following  year,  and  Russia 
was  ready  to  make  peace.  The  forts  in  the  Crimea  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  Eussians  were  not  to  keep  a  war  fleet  in  the 
Black  Sea.  Turkey  was  kept  independent  of  all  interference 
on  the  part  of  Eussia. 

The  Indian  Mutiny  began  soon  after  the  Crimean  War. 
It  was  a  rebellion  that  sprang  up  among  the  Sepoys,  or  na- 
tive soldiers,  of  whom  there  were  about  300,000  in  the  British 
army  in  India.  By  this  time  nearly  all  of  India,  including 
Sind  and  the  Punjab,  had  been  brought  under  English  control. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  country  belonged  to  the  company, 
and  the  other  third  was  ruled  by  rajahs,  or  native  princes, 
under  the  company's  influence. 

A  new  rifle  had  been  introduced  among  the  Sepoys,  using 
a  greased  paper  cartridge,  the  end  of  which  had  to  be  bitten 
off  before  loading.  Some  of  the  Indian  princes  who  had 
lost  their  thrones  spread  abroad  the  story  that  the  grease 
used  was  a  mixture  of  lard  and  tallow.  The  story  was  not 
true,  but  the  Sepoys  believed  it.  To  the  Hindu  the  cow  is  a 
sacred  animal,  while  the  Mohammedan  looks  upon  the  hog 
with  utter  loathing.  The  Sepoys  were  nearly  all  either 
Hindus  or  Mohammedans,  and  they  outnumbered  the  English 
ten  to  one.  They  had  heard,  too,  of  England's  war  with 
Eussia.  It  seemed  to  be  a  time  when  they  might  regain  their 
independence.  On  Sunday,  May  10,  1857,  the  Sepoys  at 
Meerut  mutinied  and  killed  their  officers.  They  then  hurried 
to  Delhi,  where  there  was  living  in  retirement  an  old  man  who 
was  a  descendant  of  the  Mogul  emperors.  They  brought  him 
out  and  saluted  him  as  "Emperor  of  India." 

The  revolt  quickly  spread  through  the  Ganges  valley,  and 
many  English  were  slain.  In  the  Punjab,  however,  the  Brit- 
ish governor,  warned  by  telegraph,  put  his  Sepoys  on  parade 
and  brought  them  in  front  of  twelve  cannon  loaded  with  grape- 
shot,  flanked  by  columns  of  British  soldiers.  A  command  to 

NlVER  -Bi 


372 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1857 


"  stack  arms  "  was  given  and  obeyed.     He  then  sent  an  army 
which  took  Delhi,  but  only  after  a  siege  of  several  months. 

At  Cawnpur,  meanwhile,  the  English  had  taken  refuge  in 
an  old  military  hospital,  and  resisted  every  effort  of  the  Sepoys 
to  capture  it.  But  there  was  little  food,  and  the  only  well  was 
outside  of  the  walls,  exposed  to  the  enemy's  fire.  Many  a  life 
was  lost  in  bringing  water  from  that  well.  Finally  the  Sepoy 
leader,  JSTana,  made  up  his  mind  that  he  could  never  take  the 

fort,  and  he  proposed 
to  let  the  garrison  go 
away  in  peace  if  they 
would  surrender. 
There  was  no  sus- 
picion of  treachery. 
The  English  all 
knew  this  1ST  a  n  a ; 
they  had  been  enter- 
tained in  his  palace, 
and  he  had  always 
appeared  to  be  cour- 
teous and  generous. 
Boats  were  brought 
in  which  they  were  to 
float  down  the 
Ganges  to  a  post  held 
by  their  friends.  The 
people  passed  down  a 
few  stone  steps  to 
the  river's  edge,  but  no  sooner  had  they  commenced  to  go 
aboard  the  boats  than  a  storm  of  cannon  and  musketry  opened 
on  them  from  the  banks.  Only  four  men  escaped. 

Some  of  the  boats  drifted  to  the  bank,  and  a  hundred  and 
twenty-five  women  and  children,  and  several  men,  who  had 
not  been  killed  by  the  ,«hot,  were  kept  as  prisoner?  One  night 


MONUMENT  AT  CAWNPUR. 


1857]  VICTORIA  373 

five  natives  went  into  the  prison  house  and  murdered  them 
all.  The  next  day  the  bodies  were  thrown  into  a  well  near 
by,  which  is  now  marked  by  a  beautiful  monument. 

At  Lucknow  the  English  gathered  into  the  Besidency,  a 
fortified  place  containing  the  governor's  house  and  the  public 
buildings.  The  attack  of  the  Sepoys  was  beaten  off,  but  the 
place  was  closely  besieged  for  five  months.  Many  perished, 
but  the  brave  remnant  fought  on  and  waited  for  relief. 

"  Oh,   they  listened,  looked,  and  waited, 

Till  their  hope  became  despair ; 
And  the  sobs  of  low  bewailing 

Filled  the  pauses  of  their  prayer. 
Then  up  spake  a  Scottish  maiden, 
With  her  ear  unto  the  ground : 
'  Dinna  ye  hear  it?  dinna  ye  hear  it? 
The  pipes  o'  Harelock  sound ! ' 

"  She  knew  the  droning  pibroch, 

She  knew  the  Campbell's  call, 
'  Hark  !  hear  ye  no'  MacGregor's, — 

The  grandest  o'  them  all !  ' 

"  Then  a  burst  of  wild  thanksgiving 

Mingled  woman's  voice  and  man's ; 
'  God  be  praised  !  — the  march  of  Havelock ! 
The  piping  of  the  clans  !  '  "  x 

The  coming  of  General  Havelock's  army  saved  the  women 
and  children  at  Lucknow  from  the  fate  that  had  befallen 
those  at  Cawnpur.  The  mutiny  was  soon  suppressed  by  new 
troops  sent  from  England.  The  government  of  India  was 
now  taken  away  from  the  old  East  India  Company,  and  given 
to  the  British  ministry. 

A  War  against  China  was  in  progress  when  the  Indian 
Mutiny  broke  out.  It  was  caused  by  the  seizure  of  a  Chinese 
vessel  sailing  under  the  British  flag.  The  Chinese  governor 
at  Canton,  Yeh,  took  twelve  Chinamen  from  the  ship,  on  a 
charge  of  piracy,  and  refused  to  apologize  for  insulting  the 

1  From  "  The  Pipes  at  Lucknow,"  by  Whittier. 


374  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1857 

British  flag.  Canton  was  bombarded  by  the  British  and 
French,  and  Yeh  was  made  prisoner.  It  was  a  hard  matter 
to  tell  one  Chinaman  from  another,  but  Yeh  was  known  by 
his  enormous  size.  He  was  found  hiding  in  a  closet  and  made 
a  vigorous  resistance.  But  a  British  sailor  got  a  firm  grip  by 
winding  Yeh's  long  pigtail  around  his  hand,  and  held  on  while 
the  fat  prisoner  was  secured. 

Peace  was  to  be  made  at  Peking,  the  Chinese  capital.  But 
when  the  French  and  English  ships  tried  to  sail  up  the  river 
to  that  city,  they  were  fired  on  from  the  Chinese  forts  and 
driven  off.  Afterward,  a  French  and  British  force  entered 
Peking,  burned  the  beautiful  summer  palace  of  the  em- 
peror, and  set  up  a  monument  on  the  ruins  with  an  inscrip- 
tion in  Chinese,  warning  the  natives  against  further  treachery. 
This  was  the  first  visit  of  foreigners  to  the  Chinese  capital. 
Peking  had  been  supposed  to  be  a  very  powerful  city,  but 
was  found  to  be  a  tumble-down  sort  of  place  without  regular 
streets  and  pavements,  and  not  nearly  so  large  as  had  been 
thought. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  What  was  the  purpose  of  each  war  in  this  period? 

2.  Compare  the  Chartist  movement  with  the  uprising  of  the  peasants 

under  Wat  Tyler. 

3.  What  is  the  "Eastern  question"?     Is  it  still  as  important  as  ever? 

Give  your  reasons. 

4.  Mention  the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  British  India. 

Why  is  each  important? 

5.  Why  were  the  corn  laws  made?     Repealed? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  THE  RETREAT  FROM  KABUL.     Church,  Stories  from  English  His- 

tory, Vol.  III.,  Chap.  XXII. ;  Henty,  For  Name  and  Fame. 

2.  RELIEF    OF    LUCKNOW.     Lowell,    poem,    The    Relief   of   LucJcnow; 

MacKenna  and  O'Shea,  Brave  Men  of  Action,  pp.  483-515. 

3.  THE  FAMINE  IN  IRELAND.     Kendall.  Source  Book,  pp.  414-419; 

McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I.,  pp.  93-110. 


1859]  VICTORIA  375 

4.  FLORENCE  NIGHTINGALE.     Fitchett,  Fights  for  the  Flag,  pp.  322- 

333. 

5.  SIR  HENRY  HAVELOCK.     Edgar,  Heroes  of  England,  pp.  428-470 ; 

McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I.,  pp.  232-237. 

6.  BALAKLAVA.     Henty,  Jack  Archer;  Fitchett,  Fights  for  the  Flag, 

pp.  282-292. 

,     B.     FROM  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY  TO  VICTORIA'S  DEATH. 

i 

Just  before  the  end  of  the  Indian  Mutiny,  a  change  in  the 
ministry  was  made  on  account  of  a  dispute  with  France. 
The  French  had  long  before  this  tired  of  their  king,  had  or- 
ganized a  second  republic,  and  then  finally  had  fallen  under 
the  rule  of  a  second  emperor  —  Napoleon  III.  In  1858  an 
Italian  threw  at  his  carriage,  in  Paris,  three  shells  containing 
a  kind  of  powder  that  explodes  by  concussion.  The  explo- 
sion was  so  terrible  that  ten  persons  were  killed  and  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  wounded.  There  was  a  great  outcry  among 
the  French  people  because  the  assassin  had  obtained  these 
bombs  in  England,  and  the  emperor's  secretary  asked  Lord 
Palmerston,  who  was  then  prime  minister,  to  have  a  strict  law 
made  by  Parliament  for  punishing  such  people.  So  Palmer- 
ston introduced  a  measure  known  as  the  Conspiracy  Bill, 
which  provided  severe  punishment  for  any  one  detected  in  a 
plot  to  murder. 

The  British  people  did  not  relish  the  interference  of  the 
French  in  the  business  of  a  British  Parliament,  and  the  bill 
did  not  pass.  Lord  Palmerston  was  therefore  forced  to  resign. 
Lord  Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli  formed  a  new  Cabinet. 

A  Law  Allowing  Jews  to  Sit  in  Parliament  was  made 
at  this  time.  The  oath  that  every  member  had  to  take  on  en- 
tering Parliament  contained  the  words  "on  the  true  faith 
of  a  Christian/'  words  which  could  not  apply  to  a  Jew. 
The  form  of  oath  was  altered  in  such  a  way  that  these  words 
were  omitted. 

The  new  ministry  also  tried  to  pass  another  reform  bill, 


376  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1859 

giving  laboring  men  the  right  to  vote;  but  it  was  defeated. 
Lord  Palmerston  became  prime  minister  again,  and  remained 
in  office  till  his  death  in  1865. 

The  Civil  War  in  America  now  came  to  add  to  the  trou- 
bles of  the  working  people  in  England.  The  manufacturers 
of  cotton  had  their  chief  source  of  raw  material  suddenly  cut 
off  by  the  Federal  blockade  of  Southern  ports,  and  thousands 
of  workmen  in  English  cotton  mills  were  thrown  out  of  em- 
ployment. 

The  Trent  Affair.  The  Southern  Confederacy  wished  to 
send  representatives  to  the  countries  of  Europe  to  enlist  aid. 
James  M.  Mason  and  John  Slidell  were  dispatched  to  Paris 
and  London.  They  escaped  through  the  blockade  to  Ha- 
vana, and  there  boarded  a  British  steamer,  the  "  Trent/'  for 
England.  The  United  States  steamship  "  San  Jacinto " 
overhauled  the  "  Trent/5  and  the  two  envoys  were  forcibly 
taken  prisoners.  Lord  Palmerston  at  once  demanded  a  re- 
turn of  the  envoys  and  an  apology,  threatening  war  if  re- 
fused. President  Lincoln  replied  that  the  captain  of  the 
"  San  Jacinto "  had  acted  without  authority,  and  delivered 
the  envoys  to  an  English  steamer  in  the  Bahamas. 

About  this  time,  Prince  Albert  died,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
two.  By  his  death  the  United  States  lost  their  strongest 
friend  in  England.  He  had  favored  the  Union  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  and  had  already  done  much  to  keep  Eng- 
lish sympathy  on  the  side  of  the  North.  His  death  was  a 
great  sorrow  to  the  queen.  From  that  time  until  her  death 
she  held  no  court  and  lived  in  seclusion.  "The  real  queen 
died  with  her  husband,  and  only  her  shadow  remained." 

The  sympathy  of  the  British  government  (that  is,  the  Cab- 
inet), and  that  of  the  merchant  and  manufacturing  classes, 
was  on  the  side  of  the  South,  while  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
people  favored  the  North.  The  workingmen  of  England  felt 
that  the  North  was  fighting  to  set  free  millions  of  slaves,  and 


1S65] 


VICTORIA 


377 


no  amount  of  suffering,  from  lack  of  employment,  could  make 
them  say  or  do  anything  in  support  of  slavery. 

Blockade  Runners,  low-built,  swift-sailing  steamers,  were 
fitted  out  by  English  merchants.  These  ships  would  sail  into 
Southern  ports  in  the 
darkness,  with  sup- 
plies for  the  Southern 
armies,  and  carry  off 
a  cargo  of  cotton. 
Many  were  captured  by 
the  Federal  navy,  but 

those      that      escaped 

BLOCKADE  RUNNEK. 
made   large   profits. 

The  Alabama  Claims.  The  South  also  built  or  bought 
steamers  in  Great  Britain,  to  plunder  the  merchant  vessels 
of  the  United  States.  This  was  contrary  to  the  law  regard- 
ing neutral  nations.  The  American  minister,  Mr.  Adams, 
protested  against  it,  but  five  of  these  vessels  were  sent  out, 
manned  partly  by  British  sailors.  The  "  Florida "  and  the 
"Alabama"  were  the  most  important  of  them.  Their  plan 
was  to  keep  the  British  flag  at  the  mast-head  until  they  got 
near  enough  to  the  vessel  they  wished  to  attack;  then  they 
would  suddenly  run  up  the  Confederate  flag  and  compel  the 
United  States  ship  to  surrender.  In  this  way  the  "Alabama  " 
captured  seventy  American  merchant  vessels.  After  the  war 
was  over  the  treaty  of  Washington  was  made  with  the  United 
States,  leaving  the  question  of  the  payment  to  be  made  by 
Great  Britain,  for  the  property  destroyed  by  the  Confederate 
cruisers  fitted  out  in  that  country,  to  a  commission  of  five 
men  who  met  at  Geneva  in  1872.  It  was  decided  that  Great 
Britain  should  pay  $15,500,000,  to  be  divided  among  the  mer- 
chants who  had  lost  their  vessels. 

The  Question  of  Parliamentary  Reform  came  up  again 
at  the  close  of  the  American  war.  Lord  Palmerston  died  in 


378  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1865 

1865,  the  year  of  a  parliamentary  election.  The  Liberals  car- 
ried the  day,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  and  Earl  Eussell  became 
leaders.  Eussell  was  premier,  and  Gladstone  the  leader  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  reform  bill  which  they  proposed  was 
defeated,  and  they  resigned.  Lord  Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli 
came  again  into  power.  The  workingmen  held  great  meet- 
ings and  sent  petitions  to  Parliament.  The  government 
saw  that  they  were  determined  to  have  the  right  to  vote  given 
to  them.  Mr.  Disraeli  thought  that  he  might  as  well  have  the 
credit  of  being  the  giver.  After  several  attempts,  a  bill  was 
made  that  was  satisfactory,  and  it  passed  both  houses  in  1867. 
It  practically  gave  the  right  to  vote,  in  cities,  to  every  man 
who  owned  or  rented  a  house. 

The  Education  Act.  Eobert  Lowe,  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, said,  "  Now  that  we  are  to  be  ruled  by  the  majority,  the 
workingmen,  we  must  educate  our  new  masters."  But  a  divi- 
sion in  Parliament  in  regard  to  the  Irish  Church  forced  Dis- 
raeli and  his  ministry  to  resign,  and  it  was  left  for  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's ministry,  which  began  in  1868,  to  make  better  provision 
for  the  education  of  the  people.  An  Education  Act  was  passed 
in  1870,  establishing  free  schools  among  the  poorer  population 
throughout  the  kingdom.  A  small  fee  was  charged  where  the 
people  could  afford  to  pay.  All  children  were  compelled  to 
attend,  and  the  dense  ignorance  which  had  so  long  prevailed 
in  the  great  cities  began  to  disappear.  In  each  town  there 
was  a  School  Board  chosen  to  look  after  the  new  schools, 
to  which  the  name  "  Board  Schools "  was  therefore  given. 
Women  as  well  as  "men  were  allowed  to  become  members  of 
such  boards,  and  some  of  the  best  people  took  an  active  inter- 
est in  education. 

The  Fenian  Movement  in  Ireland  had  already  given  the 
government  much  trouble.  The  Fenian  Brotherhood  was  an 
association  of  Irish  and  Irish-Americans  for  the  purpose  of 
making  Ireland  independent  of  England.  Many  Irish  sol- 


1869] 


VICTORIA 


diers  who  had  fought  in  the  American  Civil  War  were  mem- 
bers. Irishmen  who  had  gained  wealth  and  influence  in 
America  drifted  back  to  the  old  country  to  help  in  the  cause 
of  Irish  independence.  A  general  insurrection  was  planned 
for  February,  1867,  but  did  not  succeed. 

Mr.    Gladstone's    Policy.     For   centuries    England   had 
been  keeping  the  Irish  down  by  force.     Mr.  Gladstone  now 


AN  IRISH  FABMHOUSE. 

proposed  to  listen  to  their  complaints  and  satisfy  them. 
"  Three  great  branches  of  the  Irish  Upas-tree,"  he  said,  "  I 
will  cut  down :  the  Irish  Church,  the  Irish  land  system,  and  the 
Irish  system  of  university  education/'  In  the  first  place,  the 
Irish  were  taxed  to  support  the  so-called  Irish  Church,  a 
branch  of  the  English  Church,  which  they  did  not  attend, 
and  they  also  paid  willing  contributions  to  support  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  which  they  did  attend.  In  some  Protestant 
churches  no  services  were  held  because  no  one  came;  yet  the 


380  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  11869 

poor  Irish  farmer  was  taxed  for  their  support.  It  is  no  won- 
der that  Mr.  Lowe  called  the  Irish  Protestant  Church  "  a 
barren  tree  in  an  ungrateful  soil ;  it  has  no  leaves,  no  blossoms, 
no  fruit.  Cut  it  down."  It  was  cut  down  by  a  law  which 
abolished  all  church  rates,  or  taxes,  in  Ireland  (1869).  After 
this,  all  churches  there  were  to  be  supported  by  the  voluntary 
contributions  of  their  members. 

The  Irish  land  system  was  the  next  "  great  branch  "  that 
Mr.  Gladstone  attacked.  The  most  of  the  land  was  owned  by 
English  landlords  who  lived  at  a  distance.  It  was  let,  by  the 
year,  to  the  small  farmers,  who  could  be  evicted  whenever  the 
landlord  pleased.  If  the  farmer  made  improvements  on  his 
land,  the  landlord  could  turn  him  out  and  get  more  rent 
from  some  one  else,  and  the  old  tenant  lost  the  time  and  money 
that  he  had  spent  in  making  the  improvements.  A  law  was 
now  passed  which  made  the  landlord  pay  the  outgoing  tenant 
for  all  the  improvements  that  he  had  made.  This  act  did 
some  good,  but  did  not  satisfy  the  Irish  farmers,  who  wished 
to  own  their  farms  and  stop  paying  rent. 

Mr.  Gladstone  did  not  succeed  in  cutting  off  the  third 
branch, —  the  university  system,  by  which  the  Catholics  were 
practically  excluded  from  a  university  education,  — but  he  did 
make  several  other  reforms. 

The  Ballot  Act  was  passed  in  1872.  Before  that  time 
men  had  voted  openly  for  members  of  Parliament,  so  that  it 
was  known  for  whom  each  one  voted.  For  this  reason  men 
were  often  afraid  to  vote  as  they  wished,  fearing  the  power 
of  their  landlords  or  employers.  The  secret  vote  by  ballot 
stopped  this  evil. 

Important  Changes  in  Europe  were  made  during  the 
passing  of  these  reform  measures.  A  third  French  Eepublic 
and  a  new  German  Empire  came  into  existence ;  and  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Italy  were  united  under  one  ruler.  These 
changes  were  brought  about  by  several  wars  carried  on  be- 


1878]  VICTORIA  381 

tween  1859  and  1871.  The  union  of  the  small  German  and 
Italian  states,  each  into  a  strong  nation,  was  worth  all  the 
struggle  it  cost;  but  while  these  countries,  with  France  and 
Austria,  were  devoting  their  chief  energies  to  war,  the  English 
were  advancing  in  the  arts  of  peace.  While  France  and 
Prussia  were  engaged  in  the  war  of  1871,  also,  Eussia  seized 
the  opportunity  to  build  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea  and  fortify 
Sebastopol  again;  and  England  alone  could  not  interfere. 

Mr.  Disraeli,  who  was  later  made  Earl  of  Beaconsfield, 
became  premier  in  1874.  For  six  years  he  carried  on  the  gov- 
ernment with  a  great  display  of  power  abroad.  "  Imperial 
policy,"  this  was  called;  but  his  enemies  called  it  "jingo 
policy,"  taking  the  name  from  a  comic  song  written  in  ridi- 
cule: "We  don't  want  to  fight,  but  by  jingo,  if  we  do, 
we've  got  the  ships,  we've  got  the  men,  and  we've  got  the 
money,  too." 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  queen  formally  took  the 
title  of  "Empress  of  India"  (1877);  this  was  a  suitable 
expression  of  the  relations  that  had  long  existed  between 
England  and  India, 

The  Eastern  Question  was  brought  up  again  by  the  mas- 
sacre of  Christians  in  Turkey.  Eussia  declared  war  and  de- 
feated the  Turks  in  1877-8.  But  Beaconsfield  thought  the 
terms  of  peace  were  too  favorable  to  Eussia;  and  a  congress 
of  the  European  powers  was  held  at  Berlin  to  consider  the 
matter.  Through  the  influence  of  England  and  some  other 
nations,  Turkey  was  allowed  to  keep  more  territory  and 
power  than  she  otherwise  could  have  held;  still,  several  of 
the  old  provinces  of  Turkey  were  made  independent.  Eng- 
land at  this  time  received  from  Turkey  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
which  Beaconsfield  thought  was  important  on  account  of  its 
being  near  the  route  to  India. 

Egypt.  Among  the  foreign  enterprises  of  Lord  Beacons- 
field  was  the  purchase  of  nearly  half  the  stock  of  the  Suez 


382 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1878 


Canal  Company.  This  canal  had  been  built  by  the  French 
engineer  De  Lesseps.  It  was  opened  in  1869.  The  Khedive 
of  Egypt  sold  his  share,  which  was  nearly  half  the  entire 
value  of  the  canal,  to  the  British  government  for  $20,000,000. 
The  English  people  were  delighted  with  the  transaction,  be- 
cause the  canal  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  their  commerce.  The 
purchase  gave  England  some  right  to  interfere  in  Egyptian 


SUEZ  CANAL. 

politics,  and  she  has  gradually  extended  her  power  until 
Egypt  is  to-day  practically  a  British  province. 

Another  Invasion  of  Afghanistan  (1878)  was  made  un- 
der General  Eoberts.  Several  battles  were  fought,  in  which 
the  British  were  successful,  though  they  lost  heavily.  A 
force  under  Gen.  Burrows,  however,  was  defeated  and  be- 
sieged in  Kandahar.  Then  came  General  Eoberts's  wonder- 
ful march  across  the  mountains  from  Kabul  to  relieve  this 
force  (1880),  an  achievement  that  made  him  famous.  The 


1879] 


VICTORIA 


383 


RTUGUESE 
EAST 

ran 


Afghans  were  defeated,  but,  to  the  disgust  of  the  officers,  an 
order  came  from  Lord  Beaconsfield  to  retreat  and  give  up  the 
ground  that  the  English  had  won. 

The  War  with  the  Dutch  South  African  Republic  was 
due  to  another  attempt  of  the  premier  to  force  British 
rule  on  unwilling 
people.  The  Dutch 
had  originally  settled 
Cape  Colony,  which 
was  a  halfway  sta- 
tion on  the  way  to 
their  East  Indian 
possessions.  The 
Dutch  colony  was 
built  up  between 
1650  and  1806, 
when  the  British 
seized  it. 


CAPE  TOWN 
C.  of  Good  Hope 


THE  BOER  REPUBLICS   (1899). 

Some  years  later  English  settlers  began  to  arrive ; 
but  many  of  the  Dutch  colonists,  or  Boers,  disliked  their  new 
neighbors  so  much  that  they  moved  farther  north  and  east. 
The  British  government  followed  them,  however,  and  annexed 
Natal  (1843)  and  the  country  along  the  Orange  River  (1848). 
Many  Boers  then  migrated  across  the  Yaal  Eiver  and  founded 
the  republic  known  as  the  Transvaal.  England  acknowledged 
their  independence  (1852)  and  the  independence  of  the 
Orange  Free  State  (1854).  In  1877  the  government  of  the 
Transvaal  was  in  a  very  bad  condition.  Some  of  its  people, 
favoring  English  rule,  said  that  England  ought  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  country  and  restore  order.  An  English  agent 
at  once  declared  the  Transvaal  a  part  of  the  British  Empire. 
The  English  now  took  up  a  quarrel  between  the  Boers  and 
the  Zulus,  which  ended  in  the  capture  of  Cetewayo,  the  Zulu 
king,  and  the  reduction  of  Zululand  to  a  British  province. 
After  the  Zulu  war  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal  became  dis- 


384  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1880 

satisfied,  and  set  up  for  themselves  the  new  independent  gov- 
ernment of  the  South  African  Republic.  In  the  war  that 
followed  the  successes  were  all  on  their  side.  At  Heidelberg 
a  hundred  British  were  shot  down  with  the  loss  of  one  Boer. 
Several  other  attacks  of  the  British  were  almost  as  disastrous. 
Their  last  and  greatest  defeat  was  at  Majuba  Hill.  Six  hun- 
dred British  troops  had  fortified  themselves  on  the  top  of  the 
hill,  overlooking  the  Boer  camp.  The  Boers,  four  hundred 
in  number,,  stormed  the  hill  and  surrounded  the  British, 
killing  or  capturing  half  of  them  with  a  loss  to  themselves  of 
one  killed  and  five  wounded.  During  this  time  Mr.  Glad- 
stone had  again  become  prime  minister.  He  made  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal,  again  acknowledging 
their  independence,  but  reserving  to  Great  Britain  the  control 
of  their  relations  with  foreign  countries. 

Affairs  in  Egypt  were  marked  by  success  in  the  north  and 
by  disaster  in  the  Sudan.  A  rising  against  Europeans  in 
Egypt  (1882),  led  by  Arabi  Pasha,  an  officer  in  the  Egyptian 
army,  resulted  in  the  bombardment  and  destruction  of  Alex- 
andria by  the  English.  This  was  followed  by  the  battle  of 
Tel-el-Kebir,  where  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  defeated  Arabi  Pasha 
and  took  him  prisoner.  The  Khedive  has  continued  to  be  the  • 
nominal  ruler  of  Egypt,  but  since  1882  England  has  really 
been  in  supreme  control. 

The  Sudan  is  the  great  country  south  of  Egypt  and  west 
of  Abyssinia.  The  Egyptians,  during  Lord  Beaconsfield's 
rule,  had  extended  their  authority  into  this  region,  and  several 
garrisons  were  established  at  Khartum  and  other  places. 
These  garrisons  were  threatened  by  the  rising  of  a  new 
"  Mahd i,"  or  prophet,  among  the  Arabs  of  the  Sudan.  The 
fanatical  Mohammedans  fought  with  great  bravery  and  de- 
feated an  Egyptian  army  sent  against  them  (1883).  Glad- 
stone's ministry  then  sent  General  Gordon,  called  "  Chinese  " 
Gordon  from  his  successful  work  in  putting  down  a  great  re- 


1885] 


VICTORIA 


385 


MEDITERRAXEAX 


bellion  in  China,  to  withdraw  the  garrisons  from  the  Sudan. 
While  waiting  in  Khartum  for  English  troops  which  did  not 
come,  Gordon's  army  was  , 
massacred  by  the  Mahdi  and 
his  followers,  who  were  treach- 
erously admitted  into  the  fort. 
The  weakness  of  the  Glad- 
stone government  in  support- 
ing Gordon  angered  the  peo- 
ple, and  he  had  to  resign  in 
1885. 

Reform  Bills  of  1884  and 
1885.  Before  Gladstone's  res- 
ignation, however,  he  secured 
the  passage  of  the  third  great 
reform  bill,  which  gave  the 
franchise  to  the  laboring 
classes  in  the  country  as  well 
as  in  the  cities,  adding  two 
and  one-half  millions  to  the 
voting  population.  A  year  la- 
ter, the  kingdom  was  divided 
into  districts,  each  one  electing,  as  a  rule,  one  representative 
to  the  House  of  Commons.  These  acts  gave  the  House  670 
members:  72  from  Scotland,  103  from  Ireland,  and  the  rest 
from  England  and  Wales. 

The  Election  of  1885  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  Liberals. 
Gladstone  again  became  prime  minister.  A  strong  Home 
Rule  party  had  sprung  up  in  Ireland,  under  the  leadership  of 
Charles  Stewart  Parnell,  called  the  Nationalists.  Their 
object  was  to  repeal  the  Act  of  Union  passed  in  1800,  and 
have  Ireland  governed  by  an  Irish  Parliament  sitting  at 
Dublin.  The  land  reform  act  passed  in  1870  had  not  worked 
well,  and  Gladstone  now  proposed  a  law  to  lend  £50,000,000 


EGYPTIAN  SUDAN. 


386  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1886 

to  the  Irish  tenants  to  enable  them  to  purchase  their  farms  of 
the  landlords.  This  bill  lacked  thirty  votes  of  passing,  and 
Mr.  Gladstone  resigned. 

Election  of  1886.  The  home  rule  idea  was  not  favored 
in  England,  and  the  Conservatives  won  the  next  election. 
Lord  Salisbury  became  premier,  and  continued  in  office  until 
1892.  During  this  period  of  six  years  several  important 
measures  were  passed  by  Parliament.  One  of  them  abolished 
the  fees  paid  by  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  so  that  to-day 
England  has  a  free  school  system. 

The  Queen's  "  Jubilee  "  was  celebrated  in  1887,  in  honor 
of  the  fiftieth  year  of  her  reign. 

In  contrast  with  the  glory  of  the  empire  shown  by  the 
splendid  pageants  in  London,  was  the  general  distress  of  the 
agricultural  and  laboring  classes.  The  fall  in  the  price  of 
grain  brought  about  by  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  and 
by  other  causes  had  made  the  farmers  unable  to  pay  the  high 
rents  exacted  by  the  landlords,  and  the  government  was 
obliged  to  give  them  assistance  in  purchasing  the  land,  and  in 
compelling  the  landlords  to  accept  a  lower  rent. 

A  Local  Government  Law  was  made  for  England  and 
Wales  in  1888,  giving  to  each  county  the  power  to  elect  officers 
to  manage  its  own  local  affairs.  Ten  years  later  this  law 
was  extended  to  Ireland  to  console  the  Irish  for  the  defeat  of 
their  last  Home  Eule  Bill  in  1894. 

Mr.  Gladstone  became  prime  minister  again  in  1893,  but 
retired  from  public  life  the  next  year,  on  the  failure  of  his 
last  effort  to  give  home  rule  to  Ireland.  He  had  reached  his 
eighty-fifth  year,  and  had  been  over  fifty  years  in  the  public 
service.  Besides  this,  he  had  written  many  books  on  a  variety 
of  subjects,  and  was  deeply  interested  in  everything  that  was 
of  interest  to  mankind.  His  noble  and  generous  nature  en- 
titled him  to  the  first  place  among  the  Englishmen  of  his 
time,  and  to  the  title  that  they  lovingly  gave  him,  "the 


1898]  VICTORIA  387 

Grand  Old  Man."  He  died  four  years  after  his  retirement, 
and  one  year  after  the  "diamond  jubilee "  of  the  queen  in 
celebration  of  her  sixtieth  year  as  Queen  of  England,  and  of 
her  twentieth  year  as  Empress  of  India. 

The  Conservative  Government  that  went  into  power  soon 
after  Gladstone's  resignation  in  1894,  completely  changed  the 
policy  in  Africa.  Mr.  Gladstone  said  that  the  invasion  of 
the  Sudan  and  the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  were  entirely 
wrong,  and  that  the  Arabs  and  the  Dutch  should  be  allowed 
to  carry  on  their  government  as  they  wished.  Lord  Salis- 
bury and  the  Conservatives  said  that  the  British  flag  should 
not  be  hauled  down  where  it  had  been  once  set  up. 

General  Kitchener  was  sent  into  the  Sudan  from  Egypt 
with  a  strong  army  of  25,000  men  armed  with  magazine  rifles 
and  machine  guns.  He  met  the  Arabs,  numbering  50,000, 
near  Khartum  (1898).  The  mad  rush  of  the  enemy  upon 
the  English  and  Egyptians  was  met  by  a  withering  fire  which 
mowed  them  down  by  thousands.  Their  short-range  rifles 
could  not  reach  the  English.  The  supremacy  of  England  in 
the  Sudan  was  secured. 

The  Boer  War  in  South  Africa  called  Kitchener  from 
his  campaign  in  the  Sudan,  on  the  very  eve  of  its  completion. 
Things  had  gone  badly  with  the  British,  and  the  strongest 
generals  of  the  empire  were  needed.  Let  us  now  trace  the 
events  that  led  up  to  this  war.  jf" 

Cecil  Rhodes.  The  most  prominent  man  in  South  Africa 
at  the  time  was  Cecil  Ehodes.  When  a  young  man  he  had 
left  college  and  had  gone  to  Africa  for  his  health.  While 
there  he  took  an  interest  in  the  newly  discovered  diamond 
mines  at  Kimberley.  The  dry  air  of  South  Africa  cured  him 
of  his  lung  disease,  and  he  entered  upon  an  active  life.  He 
became  the  head  of  the  De  Beers  Diamond  Company,  which 
obtained  entire  control  of  the  Kimberley  mines,  producing 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  gems  every  year. 

NlVER  iA> 


388  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1889 

In  1889  Rhodes  obtained  a  charter  for  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  securing  the  right  of  trade  and  government 
in  a  vast  territory  west  and  north  of  the  Transvaal,  stretch- 
ing away  for  nearly  two  thousand  miles  north  of  Cape  Colony. 
His  great  ambition  was  to  construct  a  railroad  from  Cape 
Town  to  Cairo  and  build  up  a  great  African  empire  for  Eng- 
land which  should  stretch  from  Cape  Colony  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 

The  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State,  the  two  Boer 
republics,  lay  in  the  way  of  his  plan.  A  serious  quarrel  soon 
arose  with  the  Boers  on  account  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
the  mountain  ridges  along  the  southern  borders  of  the  Trans- 
vaal. There  was  a  great  rush  of  English  miners  into  the 
country,  and  in  a  few  years  the  nourishing  "  Gold  City "  of 
Johannesburg  was  built  up  in  the  mining  regions. 

The  Boer  government  was  unjust  and  narrow  in  its  treat- 
ment of  the  "  outlanders,"  as  the  foreign  miners  were  called, 
who  soon  came  to  form  the  majority  of  the  population.  They 
paid  two  thirds  of  the  taxes,  but  were  not  allowed  to  become 
citizens,  and  could  neither  vote  nor  have  any  share  in  the  gov- 
ernment. In  1895  the  foreign  population  of  Johannesburg 
published  a  "  Bill  of  Rights  "  which  they  demanded  from  the 
Boer  government. 

The  Jameson  Raid  followed  immediately  upon  this  de- 
mand. "  Doctor  "  Jameson  was  an  employee  of  Cecil  Rhodes. 
In  January,  1896,  he  led  a  raid  of  seven  hundred  men  into 
the  Transvaal,  expecting  that  the  foreigners  would  rise,  and 
that  together  they  would  seize  the  government.  The  raiders 
were  met  by  a  force  of  Boers  and  defeated.  Those  not  killed 
were  captured.  The  British  government  apologized  for  the 
raid  and  punished  the  leaders,  but  began  to  prepare  for  war 
by  moving  soldiers  and  supplies  into  South  Africa.  The  Brit- 
ish soon  demanded  equal  rights  for  Boers  and  British  in  the 
Transvaal.  The  demand  was  refused,  and  President  Kruger 


1899] 


VICTORIA 


389 


demanded  the  withdrawal  of  British  troops  from  the  borders 
of  the  Transvaal,  and  the  removal  of  all  troops  from  Africa 
that  had  been  brought  in  since  the  failure  of  Jameson's  raid. 
When  England  refused  these  demands,  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  Free  State  declared  war,  for  the  two  republics  had 
agreed  to  stand  or  fall  together. 

The  Boers  were  Prepared,  and  sent  their  troops  over  the 
borders  with  a  rush.     In  a  few  days,  they  defeated  the  British 


A  GROUP  OF  BOEHS. 

at  every  point,  and  laid  siege  to  Kimberley,  Mafeking,  and 
Ladysmith,  the  three  leading  towns  on  the  British  frontier. 
Through  the  autumn  and  winter  of  1899  the  British  met  with 
frightful  losses.  The  British  general  in  chief,  Buller,  was 
no  match  for  the  swift  movements  of  the  Boer  leaders.  Volun- 
teers from  Canada,  Australia,  and  the  British  Isles  hastened  to 


390 


HOUSE  OF  HANOVER 


[1900 


Africa;  200,000  horses  and  mules  were  taken  there  from  the 
United  States  and  other  countries  to  mount  the  British  soldiers. 
Lords  Roberts  and  Kitchener,  "  the  heroes  of  Kandahar 
and  Khartum"  were  now  sent  to  Africa.  The  British  out- 
numbered the  Boers  three  to  one,  and  drove  them  in  retreat 
from  Cape  Colony.  The  besieged  towns  had  held  out  bravely, 

and  the  Boer  besiegers 
were  driven  away  from 
all  of  them  after 
sieges  lasting  134,  216, 
and  119  days.  The 
British  army  entered 
Bloemfontein  in 
March,  and  declared 
the  Orange  Free  State 
a  British  colony.  In 
June  a  similar  declara- 
tion was  made  under 
the  British  flag  in  Pre- 
toria. The  war  was 
ended,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  guerrilla  fight- 
ing on  the  part  of  sev- 
eral outlying  bands  of 
Boers.  It  had  cost 
England  thousands  of 
soldiers  and  half  a 

QUEEN  VICTORIA.  bmion  flf  dollarg> 

Queen  Victoria  Died  in  January,  1901,  at  Osborne  House, 
her  winter  residence  on  the  Isle  of  Wight.  No  sovereign  ever 
died  more  generally  loved  and  respected  throughout  the  world. 
The  boast  of  the  old  Greek  patriot  could  be  truthfully  made  of 
her,  "  that  no  citizen  through  any  act  of  hers  ever  put  on 
mourning/' 


INDUSTRY  391 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  Account  for  the  attitude  of  the  various  classes  of  people  in  England 

toward  the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War. 

2.  What  were  the  effects  of  each  of  the  three  great  reform  measures? 

3.  What  do  you  think  of  Gladstone's  plans  for  curing  the  troubles 

in  .Ireland? 

4.  In  what  ways  was  the  purchase  of  the   Suez  Canal  beneficial  to 

England?     How  did  it  affect  commerce?     Colonization? 

5.  What  was  the  object  sought  in  each  of  the  wars  of  this  period? 

TOPICS  FOR  HOME  READING. 

1.  GORDON"  AT  KHARTUM.     Traill,  England,  Egypt,  and  the  Sudan; 

Mackenna  and  O'Shea,  Brave  Men  of  Action. 

2.  THE  DUTCH  AND  ENGLISH  IN  AFRICA.     Doyle,  The  Great  Boer 

War;  Lee,  Source  Book  of  English  History,  pp.  369-385. 

3.  HOME  RULE  FOR  IRELAND.     Kendall,   Source  Book,  pp.  391-400 ; 

McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  II.,  pp.  201-203. 

4.  GENERAL  KITCHENER.     Kendall,  Source  Book,  pp.  448-459;  E.  N. 

Bennett,   The  Downfall   of  the  Dervishes;  Doyle,   The  Great 
Boer  War. 

C.  INDUSTRY,  LITERATURE,  GOVERNMENT,  EMPIRE. 

The  Change  from  Hand  Labor  to  Machinery,  which 
took  place  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
made  such  important  changes  in  the  life  of  the  people  and  in 
the  management  of  business,  that  this  period  is  usually  de- 
scribed as  that  of  the  "  Industrial  Revolution."  In  the  days 
of  hand  labor,  each  workman  had  his  spinning  wheels  and  loom 
in  his  own  house.  But  after  the  inventions  made  by  Har- 
greaves,  Crompton,  and  Cartwright,  the  machines  used  were 
large  and  cumbersome,  and  required  steam  or  water  power  to 
run  them.  They  were  also  expensive  to  make,  and  one  man 
could  no  longer  obtain  money  enough  to  own  such  machines. 
As  a  result,  many  men  had  to  put  their  money  together,  to 
build  factories  and  equip  them  with  the  machinery  necessary 
to  carry  on  manufacturing  processes.  Thus  the  factory  sys- 
tem and  companies  arose.  The  workmen  could  no  longer 
spin  yarn  and  weave  cloth  in  the  old-fashioned  way  at  home, 


392  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1786 

because  this  work  could  be  done  so  much  more  cheaply  by 
machinery.  An  amount  of  cotton  thread  worth  13  shillings 
in  1786  was  worth  only  1  shilling  in  1832.  A  hand-weaver 
who  earned  25  shillings  a  week  in  1800  could  earn  only  5~y2 
shillings  in  1830.  As  men  could  not  make  a  living  by  hand 
work,  they  moved  into  the  towns  and  went  to  work  in  the  fac- 
tories. 

Two  Classes  grew  up ;  the  capitalists,  who  owned  the  fac- 
tories and  mills  with  the  machinery,  and  the  laboring  class, 
who  did  the  work.  These  two  classes  were,  on  one  point, 
opposed  to  each  other.  The  capitalist  wanted  to  hire  his  men 
as  cheaply  as  possible  in  order  to  make  a  greater  profit  on  his 
goods ;  and  the  laborer  tried  to  get  the  highest  price  he  could 
for  his  work. 

The  laborers  soon  found  that  by  joining  together  in  a  de- 
mand for  shorter  hours  and  higher  wages  they  could  force 
the  manufacturer  to  listen  to  them,  since  without  workmen 
he  could  not  carry  on  his  business.  Such  a  union  of  men 
engaged  in  a  common  occupation  is  called  a  "  trades  union." 

If  the  employer  refused  their  demands,  the  men  would 
"  strike  •"  that  is,  would  stop  all  work  until  an  understanding 
was  reached.  The  trades  unions  caused  so  much  disturbance 
by  their  strikes  that  Parliament  in  1800  passed  laws  forbid- 
ding workmen  to  combine  against  their  employers  to  raise 
wages.  Labor  unions  did  not  stop,  however,  but  continued 
to  increase,  and  gradually  grew  into  favor  with  the  public. 
Laws  against  them  have  been  repealed,  and  the  rights  of 
working  people  have  been  steadily  upheld  by  their  unions. 
There  are  now  about  1,800  trades  unions  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland. 

A  Trade  Council,  or  Federation,  is  a  meeting  of  delegates 
from  the  separate  unions,  and  assembles  every  year,  or 
oftener,  to  consider  matters  affecting  laboring  men  through- 
out the  country.  They  have  a  parliamentary  committee,  who 


1903]  INDUSTRY  393 

try  to  influence  Parliament  to  pass  factory  acts  (p.  357)  and 
other  laws  favorable  to  the  working  people.  In  1903.,  for 
instance,  a  trade  council  meeting  at  Sheffield  petitioned  Par- 
liament to  reduce  the  length  of  a  working  day  to  eight  hours. 

Associations  of  Employers  have  been  formed  to  resist 
the  demands  of  the  trades  unions.  The  Sheffield  Manufac- 
turing Union  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  these,  formed  in 
1814  to  prevent  a  rise  in  wages.  An  association  of  the  Em- 
ployers of  Engineers  was  made  in  1851  to  resist  the  demand 
of  the  Union  of  Engineers  for  higher  wages.  In  1873  a 
Xational  Federation  of  the  Employers  of  Labor  was  as- 
sembled to  consider  the  demands  of  the  Federation  of  Labor 
Unions.  Besides  these  combinations  of  employers  against  the 
workmen,  other  associations  are  made  to  lessen,  expenses  and 
keep  up  prices. 

Trusts  and  Trade  Combinations  are  the  names  by  which 
such  associations  are  known.  To  illustrate  their  working,  let 
us  suppose  that  there  are  several  gas  companies  in  the  same 
city.  Each  company  must  have  its  own  factories,  pipe  lines, 
offices,  inspectors,  and  various  employees.  It  may  also  em- 
ploy salesmen  to  go  among  the  people,  to  induce  as  many  as 
possible  to  use  the  gas  of  that  one  company.  If  one  com- 
pany charges  one  dollar  a  thousand  for  gas,  another  may  cut 
the  price  to  ninety  cents,  and  a  third  competing  company  may 
reduce  it  still  further,  until  the  price  becomes  so  low  that  the 
business  does  not  pay.  Now  suppose  that  all  the  companies 
join  into  one.  Instead  of  three  lines  of  pipe,  they  need  only 
one ;  one  office  will  do  the  work  that  before  required  three.  No 
salesmen  need  be  employed,  because  the  people  will  be  obliged 
to  buy  the  gas  supplied  or  go  Without.  Thus  by  combining, 
the  gas  "  trust,"  as  we  call  such  a  union,  will  save  a  great  deal 
of  money  in  the  cost  of  manufacturing  and  selling  its  product. 
As  this  trust  has  practically  a  monopoly,  it  may  also  increase 
the  price  of  its  gas,  perhaps  to  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 


394  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1860 

cents.  In  this  manner  some  manufacturers  in  England,  like 
many  in  America,  have  combined  their  interests;  but  gas 
works  in  England  are  now  commonly  owned  and  run  by  the 
city  governments. 

Another  Form  of  Trade  Combination  consists  only  in  an 
agreement  upon  uniform  prices,  terms  of  sale,  length  of  credit, 
discounts,  and  so  on.  Each  manufacturer  selling  the  same 
product  on  the  same  terms,  it  will  not  matter  to  the  purchaser 
where  he  buys.  If  two  merchants  in  the  same  village  agree 
to  charge  the  same  price  for  goods,  they  will  divide  the  busi- 
ness between  them. 

Profit  Sharing  has,  in  many  cases,  proved  a  success  in 
preventing  strife  between  employers  and  their  workmen  in 
Great  Britain.  This  consists  in  giving  to  the  laborer  a  share 
of  all  the  profit  above  a  certain  percentage  on  the  capital  in- 
vested. To  illustrate,  suppose  that  a  certain  factory  with  its 
machinery  is  worth  a  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  owners 
agree  to  give  to  the  employees  half  of  the  excess  of  the  profits 
over  ten  per  cent.  If  the  annual  profits  should  be  twenty 
thousand  dollars,  the  owners  would  reserve  ten  thousand  for 
themselves,  and  divide  five  thousand,  half  the  balance,  among 
the  laborers.  This  method  gives  the  employees  an  interest 
in  the  business,  and  encourages  them  to  work  more  earnestly 
for  its  success. 

The  Victorian  Age  in  Literature.  The  reign  of  Victoria 
was  marked  by  a  wonderful  increase  in  the  number  of  books 
and  authors,  due  largely  to  improved  methods  of  printing, 
and  to  the  growth  of  newspapers  and  magazines.  More  people 
now  write  because  they  can  get  their  thoughts  before  the 
public  more  cheaply  and  easily  than  in  the  earlier  times. 
Then,  too,  there  is  a  greater  demand  for  books  as  people  be- 
come more  intelligent. 

Alfred  Tennyson  was  the  greatest  poet  of  this  period.  His 
greatest  works  are  "  Idyls  of  the  King,"  stories  of  the  time  of 


1901] 


LITERATURE 


395 


Arthur  (p.  31),  and  "In  Memoriam,"  a  long  poem  written  in 
memory  of  his  friend  Arthur  Hallam.  But  some  of  his 
shorter  poems  are  better  known :  "  The  May  Queen,"  "  Locks- 
ley  Hall/'  "The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,"  and  many 
others  are  read  and  loved 
wherever  the  English  lan- 
guage is  spoken. 

Robert  Browning  and 
his  wife,  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning,  were  poets  of 
the  first  rank,  but  their 
poetry  is  more  difficult  and 
has  not  the  widespread 
popularity  of  Tennyson's. 

Dickens.  The  greatest 
novelist  since  Scott  is 
Charles  Dickens.  But 
while  Scott  revived  the  ro- 
mantic tales  of  the  days  of 
chivalry  and  of  the  border 
wars,  Dickens  wrote  about 
real  life  and  the  humorous  characters  and  incidents  of  his  own 
time.  He  began  the  publication  of  his  "  Pickwick  Papers  " 
in  1836.  The  funny  sayings  of  Sam  Weller  and  Mr.  Pickwick 
delighted  everybody,  and  the  book  is  still  a  favorite.  "  Oliver 
Twist,"  "David  Copperfield,"  "Dombey  and  Son,"  and 
"  Bleak  House  "  are  some  of  his  best  novels. 

William  Makepeace  Thackeray  was  a  clever  satirist  of 
the  social  follies  of  his  time,  while  Dickens  was  the  good- 
natured  humorist  and  friend.  Thackeray's  "  Virginians " 
deals  with  incidents  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  "Vanity 
Fair,"  "  The  Newcomes,"  and  "  Pendennis "  are  his  best 
novels.  He  wrote  also  a  "  History  of  the  Four  Georges  "  and 
numerous  essays  and  lectures. 


ALFRED  TENNYSON. 


396  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1837 

The  Chief  Historians  are  Thomas  B.  Macaulay,  Edward 
A.  Freeman,  James  Anthony  Froude,  and  Samuel  Eawson 
Gardiner,  all  of  whom  wrote  histories  of  their  own  country, 
Thomas  Carlyle  wrote  also  a  history  of  the  French  Kevolu- 
tion,  an  event  which  influenced  in  so  many  ways  the  history 
of  England. 

Among  Philosophers  and  Scientists  Herbert  Spencer, 
Charles  Darwin,  Thomas  Huxley  and  John  Tyndall  are  the 
most  important  names.  The  first  two  are  famous  for  their 
efforts  to  establish  the  theory  of  Evolution,  which  holds  that 
all  life  is  a  development  from  lower  forms.  Huxley  also 
studied  animals,  while  Tyndall,  following  the  methods  of 
Bacon  (p.  201)  taught  the  world  much  about  physical  science. 
Lister  revolutionized  the  practice  of  surgery  by  applying  anti- 
septic methods.  « 

TEeTBnfisTi  Government  has,  since  the  time  of  William 
III.,  been  marked  by  a  continual  decrease  in  the  power  of  the 
crown,  and  a  continual  increase  in  the  power  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  When  that  king  adopted  the  plan  of  choosing  his 
ministry,  not  from  several  parties,  but  from  the  party  having 
the  majority  of  supporters  in  the  House,  he  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  popular  power.  After  the  passage  of  the  re- 
form measures  (pp.  378,  385)  giving  the  people  the  right  to 
vote,  it  became  possible  for  the  will  of  the  people  to  control 
the  government  as  completely  as  in  the  United  States. 

Parliament  and  Congress.  If  we  compare  the  power  of 
Parliament  with  that  of  the  United  States  Congress,  we  shall 
find  three  important  differences. 

First,  there  are  practically  no  checks  upon  the  power  of  the 
Commons.  The  veto  power  of  the  king  is  never  used,  the 
House  of  Lords  seldom  ventures  to  oppose  a  measure  which  has 
passed  the  Commons  by  a  fair  majority,  and  no  British  court 
can  declare  an  act  of  Parliament  unconstitutional,  for  Parlia- 
ment can  at  any  time  change  the  constitution.  In  Congress, 


1900] 


BRITISH  GOVERNMENT 


397 


on  the  contrary,  the  Senate  (which  is  ^B  elected  by  direct  vote 
of  the  people)  has  equal  power  with  the  House  of  Kepresenta- 
tives,  and  is  under  no  compulsion  to  vote  for  a  bill  that  has 
been  passed  by  the  House.  And  if  a  bill  is  passed  by  the 
Congress,  it  may  be  vetoed  by  the  President  and  can  be  passed 
over  his  veto  only  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  And 
finally,  the  courts  have  power,  in  any  case  brought  before  them, 
to  nullify  any  act  of  Congress  which  breaks  our  written  Con- 


THE  MEETING  PLACE  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS. 

stitution;  the  Constitution  can  be  changed  only  by  a  three- 
fourths  vote  of  the  States. 

In  the  second  place  it  requires  six  years  to  obtain  an  en- 
tirely new  Congress,  since  the  senators  hold  office  for  that 
time.  A  new  House  of  Commons  is  chosen  whenever  the 
Cabinet  orders  it.  This  enables  the  people  of  England  to 
express  their  opinion  on  any  given  question  at  the  polls  at 
any  time,  and  through  their  representatives  to  put  it  in  the 
form  of  law. 

in  the  third  place,  the  House  of  Commons  exercises  far 


398  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1900 

greater  control  over  the  executive  branch  of  government  than 
our  Congress  has.  We  have  seen  (p.  285)  how  the  prime 
minister  took  the  place  of  the  king  as  the  presiding  officer 
of  the  Cabinet  in  the  time  of  George  I.  With  the  exception 
of  George  III.,  no  sovereign  since  William  III.  has  exercised 
much  power  in  the  administration  of  the  government.  All 
real  authority  is  with  the  Cabinet,  who  are  in  reality  a  com- 
mittee of  the  party  having  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  are  responsible  to  the  House  for  their  actions.  If 
their  actions  displease  the  House  and  it  fails  to  support  them, 
they  must  resign  or  order  a  new  election. 

The  Cabinet;  King  and  President.  The  number  of 
officers  composing  the  British  Cabinet  is  not  fixed  by  law, 
but  depends  on  the  needs  of  the  government  at  the  time. 
There  are  eleven,  however,  that  always  have  seats  in  it :  the 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord 
President  of  the  Council,  the  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  the 
five  Secretaries  of  State  (for  Home  Affairs,  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  for  the  Colonies,  for  India,  and  for  War)  ;  of  these 
the  premier  is  usually  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Be- 
sides these  eleven,  several  other  administrative  heads,  as  the 
Secretaries  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  or  of  the  Local  Government  Board,  are 
usually  given  seats  in  the  Cabinet. 

The  Cabinet  officers  are  members  of  Parliament ;  some  be- 
long to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  some  to  the  Commons.  They 
frame  and  support  bills  affecting  their  several  departments. 
Thus  the  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  would  be  expected  to 
propose  laws  affecting  the  colonies ;  and  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  those  for  raising  revenue. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  powers  of  king  and  cabinet 
in  England  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  president  and 
his  cabinet  in  the  United  States.  The  latter  are  strictly 


WOO]  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT  399 

executive  officers  and  have  nothing  to  do  directly  with  law- 
making,  except  in  the  case  of  a  veto  (p.  397).  The  cabinet 
officers  in  the  United  States  are  responsible  to  the  president 
rather  than  to  Congress.  Neither  is  the  president  responsible 
to  Congress,  but  to  the  people  only ;  the  design  of  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  being  to  make  the  legislative  and 
executive  departments  of  the  government  as  far  as  possible 
independent  of  each  other.  In  England,  on  the  contrary, 
there  is  no  such  distinction  of  legislative  and  executive  powers. 
There,  the  man  who  makes  a  law  -is  supposed  to  be  the  one 
best  fitted  to  carry  it  out. 

The  president  selects  his  cabinet  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  Senate;  but  he  may  choose  any  one  he  pleases.  The 
king  must  choose  as  prime  minister  the  man  who  leads  the 
party  that  has  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  the 
prime  minister  selects,  subject  to  the  formal  approval  of  the 
king,  the  other  members  of  the  cabinet. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  differences  between  the  national  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  and  that  of  England  are  more 
numerous  and  important  than  the  resemblances ;  and  that  gov- 
ernment, by  the  people  may  be  more  prompt  and  effective  in 
England.  ' 

The  British  Empire.  The  little  island  of  Great  Britain 
has  become  the  center  of  the  most  extensive  empire  the  world 
ever  saw.  Twelve  million  square  miles  of  territory,  or  over 
three  times  the  area  of  all  Europe,  and  four  hundred  millions 
of  people  now  own  allegiance  to  it.  This  empire  stretches 
all  the  way  around  the  globe,  lies  in  all  the  zones  with  every 
climate,  and  includes  people  of  every  race,  religion,  and  color, 
living  in  all  the  stages  of  civilization. 

In  the  Government  of  her  Colonies,  the  policy  of  Great 
Britain  has,  since  the  lesson  taught  by  the  American  War 
(p.  317),  been  most  liberal.  We  may  conveniently  group 
them  into  two  classes.  First  are  those  that  are  almost  entirely 
self  governing;  in  them  the  prevailing  race  is  English-speak- 


ORS-V 

BjUjuoAj.  ^  MAbE.R*  is..-."0^ 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


60       Longitude      30          Weat 


400 


Longitude      30  East          60  from          90      Greenwich.     120 


402  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER  [1900 

ing.  To  this  class  belong  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  New- 
foundland, the  Australian  Federation,  South  Africa,  and  _Nt"\ 
Zealand.  In  each  there  is  a  legislature  elected  by  the  people 
and  a  governor-general  appointed  by  the  British  government. 
He  governs  through  a  ministry,  or  cabinet,  representing  the 
majority  of  the  popular  branch  of  the  legislature.  The  min- 
istry is  responsible  for  its  actions  to  the  legislature  and  not  to 
the  British  government.  But  the  British  government  has 
charge  of  the  foreign  relations  of  all  the  colonies,  and  makes 
treaties  for  them. 

Colonies  of  the  second  class  are  known  as  the  "crown  col- 
onies." These  are  more  or  less  completely  governed  through 
the  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  in  London.  There  is  in  each 
of  these  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  that  is,  by  the 
British  government.  In  some  small  establishments  like 
Gibraltar  and  St.  Helena,  he  is  the  only  officer  and  has  mili- 
tary power.  In  other  colonies,  like  the  Straits  Settlements, 
there  is  a  legislative  council  chosen  by  the  colonial  office  to 
assist  him.  In  Jamaica  the  people  choose  part  of  the  legisla- 
ture, while  in  the  Bahamas  and  the  Bermudas  it  is  entirely 
elected  by  them.  In  all  the  crown  colonies  the  governor  is 
responsible  to  the  Colonial  Office  in  London,  and  not  to  the 
people  <3f  the  colony. 

India  has  a  government  of  its  own  quite  different  from  the 
rest  of  the  empire.  It  is  governed,  through  a  governor-gen- 
eral and  his  council,  directly  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  The  secretary  is  as- 
sisted by  a  council  of  fifteen  men  experienced  in  Indian  af- 
fairs. The  governor-general  also  is  assisted  by  a  council, 
chosen  partly  by  the  secretary  and  partly  by  himself,  who 
administer  the  affairs  of  India,  and  who  have  also  some  legis- 
lative power.  Many  states  of  India  are  still  governed  by 
native  princes,  subject  to  the  control  of  English  officials ; 
the  rest  of  it  is  divided  into  a  number  of  provinces.  The 


1900]  BRITISH  EMPIRE  403 

provinces  of  Madras  and  Bombay  have  governor-generals 
chosen  by  the  crown,  while  the  rest  are  subject  to  lieutenant- 
governors  chosen  by  the  Governor-General  of  India. 

Protectorates  and  Spheres  of  Influence.  Besides  the 
above  classes  of  colonies,  a  large  part  of  the  empire  consists 
of  protectorates,  which,  though  not  counted  as  British  soil, 
have  their  foreign  relations  subject  to  British  control.  These 
protectorates  are  in  various  stages.  In  some,  as  Nigeria  and 
British  East  Africa,  chartered  companies  are  in  control; 
others  are  directly  managed  by  the  Foreign  Office ;  still  others 
shade  off  into  "spheres  of  influence/'  which  are  stepping- 
stones  to  protectorates  and  colonies. 

British  Institutions  in  the  Colonies. — It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  colonial  governments  in  their  full  development  are 
faithful  copies  of  the  home  government.  The  principles  of 
the  Magna  Charta  have  been  extended  to  the  colonies,  and  the 
freedom  that  Englishmen  enjoy  at  home  is  assured  to  them 
wherever  the  flag  flies.  It  is  these  common  institutions  that 
bind  the  scattered  parts  of  the  British  Empire  together,  and 
that  have  given  rise  to  the  idea  of  an  imperial  confederation, 
or  union  of  the  whole  empire,  governed  by  a  common  Parlia- 
ment sitting  at  Westminster.  Whether  this  may  be  realized 
or  not,  it  is  certain  that  British  colonial  government  has  been 
productive  of  the  highest  good  to  mankind  and  that  English- 
speaking  colonists  everywhere  are  loyal  and  take  a  patriotic 
pride  in  owning  allegiance  to  the  empire  on  which  the  "  sun 
never  sets." 

QUESTIONS  FOR  THOUGHT. 

1.  How   did  the  introduction   of  machinery   and   the   factory   system 

affect  the  English  people? 

2.  Mention  some   good   and    some   bad  effects  of  the   organization  of 

capital.     Of  labor.     What  benefits  arise  from  profit  sharing? 

3.  What  advantages  does  the  British  Cabinet  have  over  the  American? 

4.  Would  it  be  better  to  elect  a  new  Senate  every  two  years?     Give 

reasons.     In  what  way  da  the  king  and  the  president  resemble 
each  other?     The   prime  minister  and  the  president? 


404 


HOUSE    OF    HANOVER 


1901 


TOPICS    FOR    HOME    READING. 

1.  BRITISH    COLONIAL    GOVERNMENT.      H.   E.   Egerton,   Origin    and 

Growth  of  the  English  Colonies,  pp.   140-180. 

2.  THE  BRITISH  FLAG.     Cumberland,  History  of  the  Union  Jack. 

D.     BEGINNING  OF  THE  NEW  CENTURY. 
Edward  VII.,  1901-1910. 

The  New  King,  Albert  Edward,  was  sixty  years  of  age 
when  on   the  morning  of  January  23,   th:-     King-of-Arms 

from  the  balcony  of 
St.  James  Palace  an- 
nounced the  reign  of 
"King  Edward  the 
VII."  As  Prince  of 
Wales,  he  had  long 
been  a  prominent 
figure  in  public  life. 
He  had  traveled  in 
many  countries,  and 
especially  throughout 
the  British  Empire. 
He  visited  the  United 
States  in  1860,  where 
he  made  many  friends 
through  his  natural 
tact  and  good-fellow- 
ship. He  visited  the 
Holy  Land  in  1862, 
Egypt  and  Ireland  in 
1869,  and  made  a  tour 
of  India  in  1875. 
The  Old  and  the  New.  The  death  of  Victoria  and  the 
opening  of  the  new  century  marked  the  close  of  "The  \  ic- 
torian  Age"  (p.  394).  It  had  been  an  age  distinguished  by 


EDWARD  VII. 


1902]  EDWARD    VII.  405 

great  accomplishments  in  art,  literature,  inventions,  manu- 
factures, commerce,  and  colonial  expansion.  Toward  its 
close,  however,  it  became  evident  that  the  British  people 
were  falling  behind  other  great  nations  both  in  the  art  of  war 
and  in  the  arts  of  peace.  The  Prince  of  Wales,  on  returning 
from  a  tour  of  the  colonies  in  1901,  had  told  the  people  of 
England  that  they  must  "wake  up,"  not  only  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  army  but  also  in  methods  of  manufacturing  and 
trade,  if  they  were  to  meet  the  keen  competition  of  Germany 
and  America.  The  education  of  the  lower  classes  had  never 
been  fully  provided  for  in  the  academies  and  parish  schools, 
and  it  was  not  until  1902  that  a  system  of  public  education 
was  established  which  included  all  grades  of  schools  and 
all  classes  of  people.  An  Army  Council  was  created  in  1904, 
and  steps  were  taken  to  improve  both  the  equipment  and 
training  of  the  army  and  the  mechanical  training  of  naval 
officers. 

The  Year  of  the  Coronation.  The  coronation  had  been 
fixed  for  June,  1902,  and  distinguished  persons  had  gathered 
from  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  A  score  of  Indian  potentates 
came  to  see  the  crowning  of  their  new  emperor.  Premiers 
and  ministers  from  the  colonies,  the  crowned  heads  of  Eu- 
rope or  their  representatives,  and  regiments  of  soldiers  from 
all  parts  of  Europe  gathered  in  the  hotels  or  camped  in  the 
parks. 

Peace  with  the  Boers.  The  Boer  representatives  had 
come  to  London  to  discuss  the  South  African  question  with 
General  Kitchener  and  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain,  the  Colonial 
Secretary.  It  was  agreed  that  the  Boers  should  acknowledge 
themselves  as  subjects  of  the  king  and  lay  down  their  arms. 
The  exiles  and  prisoners  returned  to  their  homes,  and  the 
British  government  appropriated  800,000  pounds  for  the 
relief  of  both  the  loyalists  and  the  Boers  who  had  been  made 
destitute.  The  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State  were 


406  HOUSE    OF   HANOVER  [  1902 

organized  into  British  colonies.  Eight  years  later  they  were 
Coined  with  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  in  the  "Union  of  South 
Africa." 

Cecil  Rhodes;  Education  Bill.  On  March  26  of  the  coro- 
nation year,  Cecil  Rhodes  died.  He  will  be  remembered  for 
his  great  contribution  to  the  cause  of  higher  education,  as 
he  left  by  will  the  sum  of  2,000,000  pounds  to  the  Oxford 
universities  to  found  the  "Rhodes  Scholarships"  for  young 
men.  Fifteen  of  the  scholarships  were  to  be  assigned  to 
Germany,  60  to  the  British  colonies,  and  two  to  each  of  the 
United  States. 

The  public  education  bill  of  1902  revoked  the  Act  of  1870 
(page  378),  and  provided  a  national  system  of  education, 
including  elementary,  secondary,  and  technical  schools.  The 
administration  of  these  schools  was  placed  with  town  and 
county  committees,  and  funds  were  provided  for  both  public 
and  private  schools.  The  Workers'  Educational  Association 
and  the  British  Academy  were  also  founded  during  the 
coronation  year. 

Irish  Land  Purchase  Bill.  There  had  been  a  long  struggle 
to  relieve  the  Irish  people  of  the  evils  of  landlordism.  Mr. 
Gladstone  had  worked  earnestly  toward  this  end,  but  had 
failed  of  success  (page  385).  Numerous  partial  relief  meas- 
ures had  been  devised  and  the  public  had  gradually  been 
brought  to  the  opinion  that  Ireland  should  belong  to  the 
Irish.  The  bills  passed  in  1885,  1887,  1891,  and  1903  pro- 
vided for  the  purchase  of  the  land  through  government 
loans  at  a  low  rate  of  interest,  so  that  every  Irish  farmer 
would  presently  own  his  farm. 

The  Tibet  Expedition.  In  1904  the  Indian  government 
dispatched  an  expedition  under  Colonel  Younghusband  to 
enter  Tibet  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  the  Grand  Lama  at  Lassa.  This  city  is  the  most 
sacred  center  of  one  form  of  the  Buddhist  religion,  and  there 


1905]  EDWARD    VII.  407 

• 

was  some  opposition  offered  to  the  English  but  little  serious 
fighting.  The  ruling  Lama  fled  and  a  more  friendly  suc- 
cessor was  left  in  authority.  The  treaty  was  signed  after 
obtaining  the  assent  of  the  Chinese  government,  to  which 
Tibet  owes  allegiance. 

Political  Parties  and  Policies.  When  Mr.  Gladstone 
retired  from  his  fourth  premiership  in  1894  on  the  failure 
of  Parliament  to  pass  his  Home  Rule  bill,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Salisbury  as  the  head  of  the  new  Conservative 
government  (page  387) ;  this  party  remained  in  power  about 
ten  years.  It  stood  for  strong  government,  and  had  success- 
fully waged  two  wars  in  Africa  by  whkh  the  British  power 
was  established  and  consolidated  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan 
and  in  South  Africa.  Through  the  shrewd  political  manage- 
ment of  Joseph  Chamberlain  a  number  of  popular  measures 
were  incorporated  into  the  Conservative  program  under  the 
label  of  "Liberal  Unionism."  Among  such  measures  were 
acts  providing  for  sanitary  tenements,  protection  of  the 
water  supply,  and  limiting  and  regulating  the  powers  of 
corporations.  The  Public  Education  Bill  and  the  Licensing 
Act  restricting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  were  also  the 
work  of  the  Conservative  Government. 

Restoration  of  Liberal  Control.  The  prime  minister, 
Mr.  Balfour,  noting  the  growing  strength  of  the  Liberal 
party,  resigned  in  December,  1905,  and  Sir  Henry  Campbell- 
Bannerman  became  the  head  of  the  government.  In  January 
of  the  following  year  a  new  House  of  Commons  was  elected 
which  was  composed  of  397  Liberals,  51  Labor  members,  83 
Nationalists,  and  157  Conservatives  or  "Unionists."  The 
old  Conservative  party  had  lost  212  members.  In  the  new 
cabinet  were  Herbert  Henry  Asquith,  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  Sir  Edward  Grey,  Foreign  Secretary,  and  David 
Lloyd  George,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  After  the 
illness  and  resignation  of  the  prime  minister  in  1908,  Mr. 


408  HOUSE    OF   HANOVER  1906 

Asquith  succeeded  to  that  place  and  Lloyd  George  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 

The  new  Parliament  set  to  work  on  a  number  of  popular 
measures.  It  wished  to  prevent  the  importation  of  con- 
tract labor  into  the  colonies  and  to  induce  the  colonies  to 
establish  "preferential  tariffs"  in  favor  of  English  goods. 
It  legalized  peaceful  strikes  and  restricted  the  teaching  of 
denominational  religion  in  the  public  schools.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  the  woman  suffrage  movement  became  promi- 
nent and  numerous  bills  for  giving  the  ballot  to  women  were 
discussed  during  leisure  moments  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
A  bill  was  passed  pensioning  all  persons  over  70  years  of 
age,  the  pension  to  be  five  shillings  per  week. 

The  Taxation  Bill.  These  various  benevolent  measures 
of  the  Liberal  Parliament  cost  a  large  amount  of  money. 
When  the  Old  Age  Pension  Bill  was  put  into  operation,  it 
was  found  to  require  12,000,000  pounds  instead  of  6,000,000. 
The  appropriation  for  the  navy  had  to  be  vastly  increased 
to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  German  navy.  The 
Education  Bill,  the  Trades  Exchange  Bill,  and  the  numerous 
measures  for  improving  the  conditions  of  the  working  classes 
added  greatly  to  the  public  expense.  In  order  to  provide 
funds,  a  new  scheme  of  taxation  was  needed,  and  the  taxation 
bill  which  was  finally  evolved  became  known  as  the  "People's 
Budget";  as  it  was  mainly  the  work  of  the  new  head  of  the 
Exchequer  it  was  also  known  as  the  "Lloyd  George  Budget." 

The  new  tax  bill  introduced  in  1909  raised  the  rates  on  all 
incomes,  especially  the  vncarncd  incomes,  and  on  landed 
property.  The  "unearned  increment'7  of  land,  that  is,  the 
increased  value  due  to  no  effort  of  the  owner  but  to  the 
general  growth  oc  business,  was  assessed  20%.  On  farms 
and  small  holdings  generally  the  rate  was  unchanged.  Hotels, 
restaurants,  liquor  purchased  by  clubs,  motor  vehicles  used 
for  pleasure  and  gatoline  were  also  heavily  taxed.  The  bill 


1910]  GEORGE   V.  409 

bore  hardest  upon  the  rich  landed  proprietors  and  upon  the 
wealthy  classes  generally,  and  was  condemned  by  them  as 
"revolutionary"  and  as  a  piece  of  "class  legislation."  The 
House  of  Lords  rejected  the  bill,  claiming  that  it  was  not 
strictly  a  revenue  bill  but  a  new  piece  of  legislation  "tied 
round  with  a  budget  string."  The  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
ment and  a  new  election  followed,  by  which  the  Liberals 
won,  although  by  a  smaller  majority  than  in  1906.  The 
House  of  Lords  was  therefore  obliged  to  pass  the  bill.  The 
House  of  Commons  now  proceeded  to  enact  a  new  measure 
which  forbade  the  Lords  to  take  any  part  in  the  future  in 
the  enactment  of  any  law  for  raising  revenue,  and  thus  they 
precipitated  a  new  struggle  with  the  upper  house,  which 
was  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  king,  May  6,  1910. 
His  eldest  son,  Albert  Victor,  had  died  in  1892  and  he  was 
therefore  succeeded  by  his  second  son,  George. 

George  V.,  1910- 

The  New  King.  Like  William  IV.,  Prince  George  had 
followed  the  sea,  and  had  not  been  trained  with  that  careful 
regard  for  statesmanship  that  is  usually  bestowed  upon  the 
"heir  apparent."  He  had  mingled  much  with  all  classes  of 
people  and  had  visited  most  parts  of  the  great  empire  over 
which  he  was  called  upon  to  rule. 

The  Parliament  Bill.  The  king's  speech  on  opening 
Parliament,  February  6,  1911,  referred  to  the  necessity  of 
settling  the  relations  of  the  two  Houses.  The  law  enacted 
provided  that  all  bills  concerning  the  raising  of  revenue 
should  not  require  the  assent  of  the  House  of  Lords;  that  all 
other  bills,  on  any  question  whatever,  might  become  law 
without  the  assent  of  the  Lords,  if  passed  by  three  successive 
Houses  of  Commons. 

Coronation ;  the  Durbar.  The  coronation  of  the  new  king 
and  queen  was  the  chief  event  during  the  summer  of  1911. 


410  HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR  [1911 

The  ceremonies  took  place  in  Westminster  Abbey  on  June 
22.  In  November,  the  king  and  queen  visited  India  to 
attend  a  second  magnificent  coronation  ceremony,  or 
durbar,  in  the  city  of  Delhi,  in  honor  of  the  transfer  of  the 
capital  of  the  Indian  Empire  from  Calcutta  to  its  ancient 
seat  where  the  Great  Moguls  had  ruled.  Another  important 
event  of  the  year  was  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Imperial 
Defense  Conference  held  in  London  in  May.  All  the 
colonies  having  independent  governments  —  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and  Newfoundland  — 
were  represented. 

The  Home  Rule  Bill.  During  the  next  two  years  the 
Irish  Home  Rule  question  was  uppermost.  Parliament 
enacted  a  law  in  1914  which  provided  a  separate  parliament 
in  Ireland  to  make  all  laws  concerning  that  country,  while 
reserving  certain  general  powers  relating  to  peace,  war,  and 
international  relations  to  the  existing  British  Parliament. 
The  Protestant  Irish  of  Ulster  refused  to  countenance  any 
measure  which  tended  to  dissolve  their  union  with  Great 
Britain.  They  actively  opposed  the  bill  and  threatened 
revolution  if  it  was  passed.  For  a  time  it  seemed  the  law 
would  have  to  be  put  into  effect  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

Owing  to  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War,  its  execution, 
like  many  other  matters,  was  postponed.  Another  measure 
passed  by  the  same  Parliament  was  a  bill  to  disestablish  the 
Church  of  England  in  Wales,  but  this  also  was  held  up  by  the 
war.  A  National  Insurance  Act  went  into  effect  July,  1912, 
which  provided  for  the  insurance  of  all  working  people 
against  sickness  and  incapac  tation.  The  cost  of  insurance 
was  to  be  divided  between  the  workingmen,  the  employers, 
and  the  government.  A  Plural  Voting  Bill  also  was  passed, 
which  took  away  the  right  of  any  man  to  vote  in  different 
counties  where  he  happened  to  have  estates;  it  had  the  effect 
of  annulling  many  thousand  Conservative  votes. 


1914]  GEORGE   V.  411 

E.    THE  WORLD  WAR,  1914-1918. 

Remote  Causes.  At  various  periods  in  her  history, 
England  has  joined  with  other  nations  in  making  war  on 
some  power  which  had  grown  so  strong  as  to  endanger  the 
peace  of  Europe.  (See  pages  165,  271,  368,  381.)  For  the 
last  fifty  years,  however,  it  had  been  the  policy  of  British 
statesmanship  to  hold  aloof  from  the  quarrels  of  the  con- 
tinental states,  and  to  devote  the  resources  of  the  United 
Kingdom  to  developing  and  consolidating  the  Empire.  This 
task  had  been  formidable  enough,  as  the  Indian  Mutiny  - 
and  the  Boer  War  proved.  ^g)  ^j^_  £2cLXJLv  ^.  A  / 

The  Rise  of  Germany.  In  this  book  only  occasional 
mention  has  been  made  of  Germany  for  the  reason  that  she 
did  not  become  a  great  political  power  until  1871,  when  the 
late  German  Empire  was  founded.  After  that  time,  how- 
ever, she  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds  in  all  the  arts  of  life. 
Her  stoiy  is  inseparably  connected  with  that  of  Prussia,  the 
dominant  state,  and  with  the  house  of  Hohenzollern,  the 
ruling  dynasty  of  Prussia  and  the  Empire.  Since  1701,  when 
Prussia  first  became  a  kingdom,  the  army  had  been  main-  ^ 
tained  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency  and  made  superior  to  the 
civil  authority.  The  same  military  spirit  had  also  ani- 
mated Austria,  the  second  great  German  power.  It  was  the 
aim  of  Germany  to  be  continually  prepared  for  war.  The 
province  of  ^Schleswigjlolstein  was  taken  from  Denmark  in 
1864,  and  the  Kiel  Canal  was  cut  across  it  connecting  the 
North  Sea  with  the  Baltic.  Railroads  were  built  for  the 
purpose  of  moving  troops  rapidly  from  point  to  point,  and 
underground  wires  connected  the  important  military  posts 
by  telegraph  and  telephone. 

In  1866,  Prussia  defeated  Austria  in  the  "Seven 


War,  and  drove  her  out  of  the  German  Confederation,  thus 
leaving  Prussia  supreme.     In  1871  a  six-months'  war  was 


412  HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR  [  1914 

fought  with  France,  by  wh'.ch  Germany  acquired  the  French 
province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  levied  an  indemnity  of 
$1  000,000,000.  During  the  forty-five  years  of  the  Empire's 
existence  she  acquired  colonies  and  possessions  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  and  extended  her  influence  in  southeastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  Her  manufactures  and  com- 
merce increased  enormously,  and  her  merchant  vessels 
carried  German  goods  into  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Jealousy  of  Russia  and  England.  Germany's  chief  rival 
in  the  Balkan  states  and  in  western  Asia  was  Russia.  Both 
nations  coveted  Constantinople  and  the  trade  of  western 
Asia.  In  extending  her  colonial  system  and  her  commerce, 
Germany  always  came  into  rivalry  with  Great  Britain. 
Wherever  she  sent  her  ships  and  her  merchants,  she  found 
the  British  merchant  and  trader. 

The  Slav  states  in  southeastern  Europe  clung  to  Russia 
as  their  protector,  while  in  opposition  to  this  "pan-Slavic" 
movement,  Germany  and  Austria  drew  together  in  a  "pan- 
German"  alliance  which  was  joined  by  Italy  in  1882  to  form 
the  "Triple  Alliance,"  and  which  was  renewed  at  various 
times  and  was  still  in  force  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1914. 

As  an  offset  to' the  Triple  Alliance,  Great  Britain,  Russia, 
and  France  also  entered  into  a  friendly  understanding  called 
the  "Triple  Entente,"  for  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe. 

German  Interests  in  the  Near  East.  Gradually  German 
statesmen  developed  a  plan  for  the  extension  of  trade  and 
political  power  through  southeastern  Europe  and  into  western 
Asia.  They  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  the  Turks, 
and  obtained  concessions  to  build  the  Bagdad  railroad. 
Eventually,  Germany  contemplated  a  "Berlin  to  Bagdad 
line,"  thus  driving  a  wedge  between  her  enemies  on  the 
East  and  West,  and  putting  her  into  a  favorable  position  for 
attacking  the  British  in  Egypt  and  India. 


1914]  GEORGE    V.  413 

The  Spark  that  Kindled  the  War.  In  1908,  Austria 
annexed  the  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  which 
were  chiefly  inhabited  by  Serbs,  and  in  1913  she  set  up  an 
independent  Albania  under  a  German  prince,  thus  cutting 
off  Serbia  from  access  to  the  sea.  This  action  doubtless  led 
to  the  assassination  of  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  Austrian 
throne,  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  and  his  wife,  while 
they  were  on  an  official  visit  to  Sarajevo,  the  Bosnian 
capital.  The  murderer,  though  an  Austrian  subject,  was  a 
Serb,  and  Austria  suspected,  or  pretended  to  suspect, 
that  the  murder  had  been  instigated  by  the  Serbian 
government.  She  accordingly,  with  the  approval  of  Ger- 
many, made  very  severe  demands  on  Serbia.  Her  failure 
to  comply  in  full  with  the  Austrian  demands  within  the 
specified  time  was  followed  by  the  Austrian  declaration 
of  war,  upon  which  Russia  ordered  the  mobilization  of 
her  armies. 

England  Declares  War  on  Germany.  Sir  Edward  Grey, 
the  British  Foreign  Secretary,  strove  hard  to  avert  war, 
but  in  vain.  Germany  had  resolved  to  strike!  Very  soon 
after  the  Russian  threat  of  mobilization  she  declared  war  on 
Russia  and  France,  and  advanced  her  troops  into  Belgium 
and  Luxemburg  preparatory  to  the  invasion  of  France. 
Upon  this  invasion  —  August  4,  1914  —  Great  Britain 
declared  war  on  Germany.  The  neutrality  of  Belgium  had 
been  guaranteed  in  1839  by  all  the  European  powers,  includ- 
ing Prussia  herself,  but  Frederick  the  Great  had  long  ago 
declared  that  "  he  kept  his  treaties  only  so  long  as  it  was  for 
his  interest  to  keep  them  ";  and  now  the  German  Chancellor, 
Bethmann-Hollweg,  complained  to  the  British  ambassador 
that  "just  for  a  scrap  of  paper,"  meaning  the  Belgian  treaty, 
"England  was  about  to  make  war  on  a  friendly  power." 
In  May,  1915,  Italy  entered  the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies; 
Bulgaria  declared  for  Germany  in  October  of  the  same  year, 


414 


HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR 


1914 


while  Turkey  under  strong  German  pressure  had  taken  the 
German  side  in  November,  1914. 

Events  of  1914;  Battle  of  the  Marne.     The  German  plan 
was  to  sweep  through  Belgium  with  a  huge  army,  crush 


THE  WESTERN  FRONT. 

France,  capture  Paris,  and  collect  a  large  indemnity  before 
Russia  could  get  her  forces  into  action;  but  Belgium  inter- 
posed so  vigorous  a  resistance  that  Germany  had  to  bring 
up  heavy  guns  to  reduce  the  fortresses  of  Liege  and  Xamur, 
while  England  hurried  across  the  Channel  an  expeditionary 
force  under  Sir  John  French  to  cooperate  with  the  French 
army  dispatched  by  General  Joffre.  The  opposing  armies 


1914]  GEORGE   V.  415 

met  at  Mons  but  during  a  five-days  battle  the  Anglo-French 
forces  were  steadily  driven  back  to  the  river  Marne.  On 
September  5,  Joffre  issued  his  famous  order  "to  stand  and 
die  on  the  field  "  rather  than  retreat  farther.  Then  followed 
a  four-days  battle  —  "the  miracle  of  the  Marne"  -  —  involv- 
ing 2,000,000  men.  It  was  one  of  the  "decisive"  battles  of 
the  world,  for  the  Germans  were  defeated  and  compelled  to 
retreat.  Paris  was  saved,  and  the  world  was  saved  from 
German  domination.  The  German  plan  had  miscarried, 
and  the  long  struggle  had  fairly  begun. 

Defense  of  the  Channel  Ports ;  Battle  of  Ypres.  Intrench- 
ing themselves  behind  the  river  Aisne,  the  Germans  turned 
back  north  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Belgium  and  to 
seize  the  seaports  on  the  English  Channel  and  thus  cut  off 
British  aid  from  France.  They  succeeded  in  their  first 
objective,  but  were  balked  in  their  attempt  on  the  Channel 
ports  by  the  long  battle  of  Ypres,  where  a  British  force  of 
150  000  valiancy  blocked  the  path  of  500,000  Germans  for 
nearly  a  month,  while  reinforcements  were  being  hurried 
over.  The  year  1914  closed  with  the  battle  line  marked 
out  from  the  coast  of  Belgium  to  the  Swiss  mountains. 
During  the  next  three  years  there  was  a  continuous  trench 
fighting  along  this  line,  but  with  no  great  advantage  to 
either  side. 

Conditions  in  England  at  the  Beginning  of  the  War.  The 
leading  men  in  the  cabinet  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  were 
H.  H.  Asquith,  the  premier,  David  Lloyd  George,  the 
Chancellor,  and  Sir  Edward  Grey,  the  Foreign  Secretary. 
England's  total  military  forces  at  the  time  numbered  about 
half  a  million  scattered  throughout  the  Empire,  and  she 
could  send  only  60  000  men  in  August,  1914,  to  the  defense 
of  Belgium. 

After  several  party  conflicts,  a  "  Coalition  Cabinet, "  made 
up  from  all  parties  was  called  together  by  Mr.  Asquith  in 


416  HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR  [  1915 

May,  1915.  It  consisted  of  22  members  with  an  inner 
"War  Cabinet,"  and  fifty  or  more  additional  committees 
dealing  with  the  various  forms  of  war  activities.  Lord 
Kitchener,  as  War  Secretary,  set  to  work  to  recruit  and 
equip  the  first  "million,  '  and  Lloyd  George  as  Minister  of 
Munitions  began  the  work  of  converting  the  manufacturing 
plants  of  the  country  into  one  vast  system  of  munitions  works. 

Government  Control  of  Industry.  By  a  series  of  "Defense 
of  the  Realm  Acts,"  the  government  gradually  assumed 
control  of  lines  of  transportation  and  communication,  and  all 
industries.  At  the  end  of  eighteen  months  the  Coalition 
Cabinet  was  dissolved,  and  on  December  6,  1916,  Lloyd 
George  was  chosen  premier.  He  proceeded  to  organize 
a  most  remarkable  "cabinet,"  which  continued  in  power 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  There  was  first  a  special  War 
Cabinet  of  five,  of  which  he  was  himself  the  head;  second,  an 
"outer  circle"  of  heads  of  departments  —  88  in  all;  third,  a 
series  of  ministries  which  eventually  numbered  400,  for 
directing  the  energy  of  the  kingdom  to  the  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war.  A  registration  of  all  persons  between  the 
ages  of  16  and  65  was  made,  to  find  out  what  each  was  willing 
and  able  to  do  for  the  public  good.  At  first  volunteers  were 
depended  on,  but  in  February  a  Military  Bill  was  passed, 
imposing  compulsory  service  upon  certain  classes  of  citizens. 
By  the  summer  of  1918,  2,500,000  men  were  in  the  army, 
and  2  000,000  men  and  women  were  working  in  munitions 
factories  and  related  industries.  In  1914  the  government  had 
three  munitions  factories;  in  1918,  it  had  25,000  turning  out 
guns,  munitions,  and  supplies. 

The  Dominions  beyond  the  Seas.  It  had  been  the  expecta- 
tion of  the  German  Powers  that  the  British  Empire  would 
fall  to  pieces  on  the  outbreak  of  war.  But  the  British 
dominions  entered  into  the  war  with  enthusiasm.  Xew 
Zealand  sent  220,000  men  out  of  a  population  of  400,000 


1916]  GEORGE   V.  417 

males  of  over  15  years  of  age.  Canada's  contribution  was 
640,886  men.  Australia's  total  efforts  included  416,809 
men  and  §1,250,000,000.  Besides  her  contribution  in  men 
(136,070  men)  and  money,  South  Africa  sent  General  Jan 
Smuts,  who  became  a  member  of  the  War  Cabinet.  In 
India,  1,161,789  men  were  recruited  during  the  war,  and  her 
war  fund  amounted  to  $600,000,000  —  a  large  sum  consider- 
ing the  poverty  of  the  country. 

The  World  War  involved  three  fourths  of  the  people  of  the  world,  of  which 
60,000,000  were  called  to  arms.  7,000,000  were  killed  in  battle,  and  20,000,- 
000  more  were  wounded;  of  these,  6,000,000  were  permanently  maimed.  The 
British  Empire  contributed  8,654,467  men  and  $35,000,000,000.  The  total 
cost  of  the  war  is  put  at  about  $186,000,000,000. 

Events  in  Eastern  Europe.  Russia  began  the  war  by 
sending  armies  into  Galicia  and  East  Prussia,  thereby  divert- 
ing large  German  forces  from  the  western  frontier.  For  a 
time  the  Russians  were  victorious,  but  after  the  Germans  had 
entrenched  themselves  in  the  "West,  they  halted  the  Russian 
advance.  In  the  following  year  they  overran  Poland  and  a 
wide  strip  of  western  Russia.  During  1916,  the  Russian 
government,  honeycombed  by  corruption,  treachery,  and 
inefficiency,  gradually  collapsed,  and  in  March,  1917,  the 
Czar  abdicated  and  a  republican  form  of  government  was 
established. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  war,  Serbia  had  successfully  re- 
pelled the  Austrian  attacks;  but  in  October,  General  Macken- 
sen,  after  his  victory  over  the  Russians  at  Dunajec,  invaded 
Serbia,  and  with  the  help  of  Bulgaria  utterly  crushed  that 
country.  The  remnant  of  the  Serbian  army  was  carried 
by  the  Italian  navy  to  the  Island  of  Corfu.  ^ 

Failure  at  Gallipoli  and  Fall  of  Roumania.  While  the 
Serbian  tragedy  was  in  progress  the  British  and  French  had 
landed  a  force  of  200.000  men  on  the  peninsula  of  Gallipoli, 
between  the  Aegean  Sea  and  the  Dardanelles  (April, 


418 


HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR 


1916 


for  the  purpose  of  forcing  a  passage  through  to  the  Black  Sea 
to  open  the  way  for  Russian  grain  and  to  stop  the  Rumanians 

from  supplying  food- 
stuffs and  oil  to  the 
Germans.  The  at- 
tempt failed,  and  the 
British  lost  three 
battleships  through 
submarine  attacks;  the 
force  was  withdrawn 
in  January,  1916,  more 
hastily  on  account  of 
the  rapid  progress  of 
the  German  armies 
southward  through 
Serbia.  In  August, 
1916, Rumania  entered 
the  war  on  the  side 
of  the  Allies,  but  was 
crushed  by  the  Ger- 
mans. 

Italy's  Part  in  the 
War.  Italy  entered 
the  war  in  May,  1915, 
but  accomplished  little 
the  first  year  beyond 
engaging  the  attention 

WESTEK.ASZA.  Qf     &     ^     Augtrian 

army.  In  1917  a  combined  Austrian  and  German  army 
forced  the  Italians  back  with  heavy  loss  to  the  Piave  River 
north  of  Venice,  where  they  managed  to  hold  on  until  ready 
for  the  spectacular  counter-offensive  in  1918,  when  they 
took  400,000  prisoners  and  7000  guns  within  three  days  and 
forced  Austria  to  agree  to  an  armistice  November  4. 


1917] 


GEORGE    V. 


419 


Egypt  and  the  Near  East.  As  the  native  Egyptian  govern- 
ment was  strongly  pro-German,  a  British  and  Colonial  army 
occupied  the  country  early  in  the  war.  In  November,  1914, 
the  Turks  began  massing  troops  in  Syria,  and  the  Khedive 
was  busy  among  the  Mohammedan  tribe  of  the  Senussi 
dwelling  in  the  desert  west  of  Egypt  —  both  meditating  an 
attack  on  that  country.  Under  these  circumstances  England 
proclaimed  a  protec- 
torate over  Egypt. 
Both  enemy  cam- 
paigns proved  unsuc- 
cessful. In  December, 
1916,  the  British  took 
the  offensive.  Gen- 
eral Allenby  made  his 
historic  entrance  into 
Jerusalem  December 
11,1917.  Hussein,  the 
Sherif  of  Mecca,  who 
claimed  descent  from 
the  Prophet  Moham- 
med, joined  Allenby 
against  his  former 
Turkish  master,  and 
received  for  his  aid 
the  acknowledgment 
of  his  title  "King  of 
the  Hedjaz." 

The  Winning  of  Mesopotamia  and  Bagdad.  For  three 
centuries  the  British  had  been  established  in  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  outlet  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  river  system.  Where 
these  rivers  approach  each  other  in  the  Mesopotamian  plain 
stands  Bagdad,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Mohammedan 
Caliphs  and  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Kaiser's  projected 


ALLENBY'S  ENTRANCE  INTO  JERUSALEM. 


420  HOUSE    OF   WINDSOR  [1915 

railroad.  In  April,  1915,  General  Townshend  led  a  drive 
into  Mesopotamia,  but  was  forced  to  surrender  at  Kut-el- 
Amara,  a  Turkish  fortress  on  the  Tigris.  General  Maude 
at  the  head  of  a  fresh  expedition  recaptured  Kut  and 
entered  Bagdad  in  March,  1917.  Under  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  the  province  of  Mesopotamia  became  a  British 
protectorate,  and  much  has  already  been  done  to  reclaim 
that  fertile  but  desolate  region  from  the  havoc  wrought  by 
twelve  centuries  of  Turkish  misrule. 

Complete  Conquest  of  Western  Asia.  In  the  meantime, 
General  Allenby  and  his  Arab  allies  had  defeated  an  army 
of  125,000  Turks  and  Germans,  and  completed  the  conquest 
of  Syria  in  October,  1918.  This  campaign,  together  with 
that  of  General  Maude,  and  the  Allied  advance  against  the 
Turkish  front  near  Adrianople,  forced  Turkey  to  enter  into 
an  armistice  on  October  30,  1918.  In  the  Far  East, 
Japan,  who  had  entered  the  war  in  August,  1914,  had 
captured  the  German  "concession"  of  Kiaochow  in  the 
Chinese  province  of  Shantung,  and  had  also  gathered  in 
all  the  Pacific  islands  lying  north  of  the  Equator  belonging 
to  Germany. 

German  Colonies  in  Africa  Seized.  Germany  lost  most 
of  her  African  colonies  in  the  first  year  of  the  war.  French 
and  Belgian  troops  took  Togoland  and  Kamerun  in  August. 
The  conquest  of  German  Southwest  Africa  was  left  to  the 
South  African  Union.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  a  rebel- 
lion had  broken  out  in  South  Africa,  led  by  De  Wet  and 
Beyers,  former  Boer  leaders  who  still  cherished  their  hatred 
of  the  British.  The  South  African  government  finally 
captured  De  Wet  and  brought  the  rebellion  to  an  end.  The 
conquest  of  German  Southwest  Africa  was  then  seriously 
undertaken,  and  the  last  German  forces  surrendered  in 
July,  1915.  The  conquest  of  German  East  Africa  took  four 
years,  but  was  completed  by  combined  armies,  who  forced 


1918  J  GEORGE    V.  421 

the  German  leader  to  surrender  in  Northern  Rhodesia, 
where  he  had  taken  refuge,  on  November  14,  1918. 

The  Western  Front,  1915-1918.  The  struggle  for  the 
Channel  ports  was  marked  in  1915  by  the  British  drive  at 
Neuve  Chapelle,  where  they  gained  ground  at  a  heavy 
sacrifice.  This  was  followed  by  the  German  counter-attack 
and  the  resulting  second  battle  of  Ypres.  Here  it  was  that 
the  Germans  made  the  first  use  of  poison  gas,  contrary  to 
the  rules  of  civilized  war.  The  reply  to  Ypres  was  an  Anglo- 
French  drive  in  Champagne  led  by  Marshal  French,  which 
failed,  owing  chiefly  to  lack  of  munitions  and  men.  Never- 
theless it  was  felt  that  the  British  commander  was  too  slow, 
and  Sir  Douglas  Haig  was  sent  to  command  on  the  western 
front.  In  July,  1916,  Haig  began  the  series  of  drives  known 
as  the  first  battle  of  the  Somme,  to  relieve  the  German 
pressure  on  the  Verdun  fortresses.  The  German  aim  —  "to 
bleed  France  white"  before  Great  Britain  could  fully  muster 
her  forces — -was  defeated.  It  was  met  by  the  rallying  cry — 
"They  shall  not  pass"  •  —  and  more  than  100,000  Frenchmen 
died  on  the  battlefield  of  Verdun.  The  fortress  was  never 
taken. 

The  German  "  Strategic  Retreat."  As  a  result  of  the  1916 
campaign  the  German  commander,  Von  Hindenburg,  retired 
to  a  selected  line  of  defenses  known  as  the  "Hindenburg 
Line."  This  was  a  series  of  trenches,  fortified  heights,  and 
barbed-wire  entanglements,  the  most  ingenious  and  formid- 
able defenses  ever  used  on  the  field  of  battle.  It  was  deemed 
impregnable,  but  was,  nevertheless,  severely  dented  in  the 
battle  of  Arras,  where  the  Canadians  captured  Vimy  Ridge. 
The  blowing  up  of  the  Messines  salient  by  planting  1,000,000 
pounds  of  explosive  was  one  of  the  spectacular  British 
achievements  of  the  year.  The  most  important  event  of 
the  year  1917,  however,  was  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  conflict  by  its  war  declaration  of  April  6,  1917. 


422 


HOUSE    OF    WINDSOR 


1914 


In  order  to  understand  this  action  of  our  count ly  and  the 
general  condition  of  affairs  in  1917,  it  is  necessary  to  review 
the  naval  part  of  the  war. 


TANKS:  ADTOMOUILE  FORTS  DESIGNED  BY  THE  BRITISH. 

The  perfecting  of  the  submarine,  the  most  dangerous  form 
of  war  craft  ever  devised,  gave  the  Germans  a  tremendous 
advantage,  for  they  were  in  great  measure  independent  of  the 
sea,  while  its  free  navigation  was  the  very  life  blood  of  Allied 
powers.  The  sea  routes  had  to  be  kept  for  the  transportation 
of  food,  munitions,  and  troops.  During  the  war  British 
ships  transported  22,000,000  men  across  the  seas  with  a  loss 
of  only  4391;  yet  during  the  same  period  over  9.000,000 
tons  of  British  shipping  were  sunk,  while  her  allies  and  neu- 
trals lost  about  6,000.000  more,  about  3000  vessels  in  all. 

Important  Naval  Battles.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war 
there  were  hundreds  of  German  ships  abroad  on  the  high 


1916]  GEORGE   V.  423 

seas  and  in  foreign  ports.  Within  two  months  about  1,000,- 
000  tons  of  German  shipping  was  either  captured  or  interned. 
A  German  squadron  of  five  ships,  in  command  of  Admiral 
Von  Spee,  was  operating  off  the  coast  of  Chile  in  the  autumn 
of  1914.  Admiral  Craddock  ventured  to  attack  with  four 
ships  of  an  older  and  inferior  type,  and  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Coronel  with  a  loss  of  three  of  the  ships  and  1600 
men.  The  loss  was  quickly  avenged  by  Admiral  Sturdee, 
who  caught  the  German  fleet  at  the  Falkland  Islands,  about 
one  month  after  the  Coronel  disaster,  and  sent  to  the  bottom 
Von  Spee  with  four  of  his  ships  and  their  crews.  The 
Dresden  escaped,  but  was  later  taken  off  Juan  Fernandez 
Island.  In  August,  1914,  the  British  made  an  attack  on 
German  cruisers  patrolling  the  waters  about  Heligoland,  a 
strongly  fortified  island  guarding  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  and 
the  Kiel  Canal  where  the  German  fleet  was  blockaded.  A 
few  small  vessels  were  sunk,  but  this  area  was  found  to  be 
so  well  defended  with  mines  and  submarines  that  it  was  de- 
termined to  wait  for  the  Germans  to  come  out. 

German  Raids;  Dogger  Bank  and  Battle  of  Jutland. 
The  German  plan  was  to  send  swift  cruisers  to  the  English 
coast,  draw  out  the  British,  and  scatter  mines  as  they  hurried 
away.  Their  raids  against  an  undefended  coast  resulted 
only  in  the  destruction  of  dwelling  houses  and  churches  and 
the  killing  of  women  and  children.  One  of  these  raiding 
squadrons  was  intercepted  on  the  Dogger  Bank  and 
one  German  cruiser,  the  Blucher,  was  sunk,  and  others 
damaged. 

The  chief  naval  battle  of  the  war  was  that  of  Jutland  off 
the  Danish  coast,  fought  May  31,  1916,  when  Admiral 
Beatty  fell  in  with  the  German  fleet  out  in  full  force.  He 
chased  back  their  advanced  line  of  cruisers,  but  meeting 
with  a  superior  force,  turned  north  to  await  the  arrival  of 
Admiral  Jellicoe,  who  had  been  signaled  to  come  to  his  aid. 


424  HOUSE    OF   WINDSOR  [  1916 

On  the  arrival  of  Jellicoe  the  German  fleet  retreated  during 
a  running  fight  and  sought  safety  behind  their  mine  fields. 
Both  sides  lost  several  ships,  but  the  German  fleet  never 
came  out  again  to  fight  in  the  open,  but  remained  "bottled 
up"  until  their  final  surrender  November  21,  1918. 

Sinking  of  the  Lusitania  and  the  Sussex;  Unrestricted 
Submarine  Warfare.  According  to  the  rules  of  civilized 
warfare,  when  passenger  vessels  and  merchant  vessels  are 
taken,  the  lives  of  passengers  and  crew  must  be  safeguarded. 
Disregarding  this  rule  the  Germans  sunk  the  Lusitania,  an 
unarmed  British  passenger  ship,  drowning  1134  men,  women, 
and  children,  many  of  whom  were  Americans.  Another 
violation  of  the  rules  of  naval  war  was  the  sinking  of  the 
Sussex,  an  unarmed  British  Channel  steamer  also  carrying 
neutral  passengers,  including  Americans.  On  January  31, 
1917,  Germany  announced  that  thereafter  all  ships  without 
distinction  would  be  sunk  without  warning  if  found  in  the 
waters  near  the  British  Isles.  The  response  to  this  was  the 
American  declaration  of  war,  and  the  development  of  new 
methods  of  destroying  submarines  and  of  avoiding  their 
attacks;  by  the  spring  of  1918  submarines  were  being  de- 
stroyed faster  than  they  could  be  built  and  the  menace  drew 
to  a  close.  The  last  sinking  by  a  submarine  occurred 
November  2,  1918. 

The  Last  German  Offensive  —  March  to  July,  1918.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  year,  Germany,  victorious  in  the  east, 
made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Russia,  by  which  she  secured 
large  additions  of  territory.  She  then  turned  to  the  west 
to  strike  the  great  blow  for  which  she  had  long  been  prepar- 
ing. On  March  21  she  launched  an  army  of  750,000  men 
against  the  French  and  British  lines  west  of  St.  Quentin 
with  the  purpose  of  breaking  through,  separating  the  two 
allies,  and  driving  the  British  back  upon  the  Channel  and 
the  French  toward  Paris.  In  this  attack,  called  the  battle 


1918]  GEORGE   V.  425 

of  Picardy,  a  salient  35  miles  deep  was  driven  into  the  Allied 
lines,  which  steadily  drew  back.  Another  German  army 
struck  farther  south,  forcing  the  French  back  across  the 
Marne  at  Chateau  Thierry,  making  another  deep  dent  in  the 
Allied  line.  Other  hard  blows  were  struck  at  different 
points,  while  the  famous  long-range  gun,  the  "Big  Bertha," 
bombarded  Paris  at  a  distance  of  75  miles. 

The  Darkest  Period  of  the  War.  Foch  made  Supreme 
Commander.  As  it  is  "darkest  just  before  day,"  so  this  — 
the  darkest  period  of  the  war  —  came  just  before  the  final 
victory.  Marshal  Haig  issued  an  order  to  his  armies  warning 
them  of  the  seriousness  of  the  situation  and  declaring  that 
the  lines  must  be  held  at  any  sacrifice.  The  great  danger 
forced  the  Supreme  War  Council  to  appoint  Foch  supreme 
commander  of  all  the  Allied  armies  (March  29).  For  six 
weeks  the  Germans  poured  shot  and  shell  upon  the  Allied 
lines  and  sacrificed  their  best  troops  to  break  through,  but 
their  efforts  after  the  first  great  rush  soon  showed  signs  of 
weakness.  In  June  they  began  to  send  troops  across  the 
Marne  at  Chateau  Thierry,  but  were  promptly  halted  by 
French  and  American  forces. 

Allied  Counter-attack  and  End  of  the  War.  Immediately 
after  his  appointment  as  supreme  commander,  Foch  began 
to  prepare  for  the  great  counter-attack  which  he  believed 
would  bring  the  great  struggle  to  a  successful  close.  As  soon 
as  the  German  drive  was  halted,  he  struck  the  first  blow. 
On  July  18  a  combined  French  and  American  force  attacked 
the  Germans  on  the  Marne  and  drove  them  back  eight  miles 
the  first  day  with  heavy  losses.  This,  the  second  battle  of 
the  Marne,  was  followed  by  other  blows.  The  British  drive 
began  in  August,  southeast  of  Amiens,  and  within  a  few 
weeks  the  Germans  had  lost  all  the  ground  they  had  gained 
since  March  and  were  back  behind  the  fortifications  of  the 
Hindenburg  Line.  Foch  continued  his  attacks  on  the  weaken- 


426 


HOUSE    OF   WINDSOR 


1918 


ing  German  lines.     The  Americans   took  the   St.   Mihiel 
salient,  and  soon  the  Germans  were  in  full  retreat. 


KINO  GEORGE  REVIEWING  AMERICAN  TROOPS. 

Abdication  of  the  Kaiser;  the  Armistice.  When  the 
German  leaders  recklessly  forced  the  United  States  to  declare 
war,  they  did  not  believe  that  we  could  send  enough  soldiers 
across  the  ocean  in  time  to  save  the  day  for  the  Allied  cause; 
but  when  they  saw  Americans  in  the  front  of  battle  and 
learned  that  millions  were  on  the  way,  they  knew  the  war 
was  lost.  The  German  Emperor  fled  to  Holland  on  No- 
vember 9,  and  two  days  later  German  delegates  met  Foch 
at  Campiegne  and  agreed  to  an  armistice,  by  which  they 
surrendered  40,000  guns,  74  war  craft,  and  other  military 
supplies.  They  agreed  to  withdraw  from  all  the  countries 
they  had  invaded  and  to  surrender  temporary  control  of  the 


1919]  GEORGE    V.  427 

west  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  war  was  over,  and  it  now 
remained  to  create  new  nations  who  had  won  their  freedom, 
draw  new  boundaries,  and  build  again  the  cities  and  homes 
which  had  been  destroyed. 

Versailles  Congress:  Peace  Treaty  and  League  of  Na- 
tions. The  chief  event  of  1919  was  the  assembling  at  Ver- 
sailles of  the  representatives  of  thirty  of  the  leading  powers 
of  the  world  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Germany  and  to 
create  a  League  of  Nations,  which  thereafter  should  arbitrate 
disputes  and  prevent  war.  The  treaty  was  signed  on  June 
28,  1919,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  tragedy  at  Sarajevo  and 
was  ratified  early  in  1920.  It  sets  forth  the  terms  of  peace 
with  Germany,  restores  Alsace-Lorraine  to  France,  recognizes 
the  independence  of  the  new  nations,  defines  boundaries, 
provides  for  reparations  on  the  part  of  Germany  for  the 
damage  she  had  done,  and  creates  a  new  "League  of  Na- 
tions," composed  of  those  whose  delegates  signed  the  treaty 
and  of  others  who  may  hereafter  care  to  join  it.  Geneva 
was  selected  as  the  meeting-place  of  the  representatives  of 
the  League. 

By  the  treaty  with  Germany  and  agreements  under  the 
League  of  Nations,  several  of  the  German  colonies  in  Africa 
and  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  came  under  the  control  of  the 
British  Empire.  By  treaty  with  Turkey  and  agreements 
under  the  League  of  Nations,  the  British  control  also  Pales- 
tine and  Mesopotamia. 

Political  Events.  The  shock  of  the  war  had  tended  to 
draw  the  members  of  the  Empire  closer  together  and  to  break 
down  the  barriers  between  classes  at  home.  Henceforth 
the  dominions  were  to  be  consulted  on  all  international 
questions  affecting  their  interests,  and  the  Imperial  Con- 
ference had  its  beginning.  It  was  decided  that  such  a 
conference  should  be  held  annually,  and  should  be  composed 
of  the  British  premier  and  such  of  his  associates  as  were 


428  HOUSE    OF   WINDSOR  [1918 

concerned  with  international  affairs,  and  of  the  premiers 
on  the  dominions  and  a  representative  from  India. 

Extension  of  the  Franchise  to  Women.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  war  the  right  to  vote  was  still  withheld  from  domestic 
servants  and  women.  Other  restrictions  tended  to  favor 
the  possession  of  property  as  a  qualification  for  voting.  The 
militant  suffragettes  who  had  favored  violence  to  win  their 
cause  before  the  war  had  laid  aside  every  prejudice,  and 
entered  whole-heartedly  into  all  sorts  of  occupations  to  help 
the  nation.  Their  splendid  service  was  recognized,  and 
when  the  Franchise  Act  of  1918  was  drawn  the  right  to  vote 
was  given  to  women  over  30  years  of  age,  with  certain  ex- 
ceptions, the  age  for  men  being  21.  The  membership  of 
the  House  of  Commons  was  increased  from  670  to  707. 

At  the  general  election  held  December,  1918,  the  Coalition 
party  elected  467  members,  and  their  opponents,  the  labor 
party  who  had  withdrawn  from  the  Coalition,  63  members. 
The  country  refused  to  support  the  extreme  measures  pro- 
posed by  the  Labor  party,  which  was  really  an  alliance  of 
the  trade  unions.  It  was  a  personal  triumph  for  David 
Lloyd  George,  who  continued  to  head  the  British  Govern- 
ment. Two  great  problems  remaining  for  him  to  solve  wore 
to  establish  a  government  for  Ireland  which  should  be  accept- 
able to  all  classes  and  to  adjust  the  manifold  disputes  between 
laborers  and  employers  and  the  general  public. 

The  Labor  Problem.  Great  Britain  has  developed  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  any  other  country  the  trade  union. 
The  various  unions  have  joined  in  a  national  federation  and 
that  Labor  party  has  elected  many  members  of  Parliament. 
They  have  through  these  means  secured  various  recognized 
rights — collective  bargaining,  right  to  picket  during  strikes, 
besides  shorter  hours  and  higher  wages.  In  recent  times, 
and  especially  since  the  World  War,  some  of  the  labor  leaders 
have  entered  into  alliance,  more  or  less  openly,  with  those 


1915]  GEORGE    V.  429 

radical  elements  of  society  who  wish  to  have  the  state  own 
and  operate  the  industries  of  the  country  for  the  benefit  of 
the  workers. 

The  Treasury  Conference.  In  the  spring  of  1915  when 
the  Minister  of  Munitions  was  making  effort  to  speed  up 
production,  he  was  confronted  by  the  twin  problems  of 
profiteering  and  strikes.  A  conference  was  arranged  between 
the  government  officers  and  thirty-five  trade  unions,  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  there  should  be  no  strikes  on  govern- 
ment work  during  the  war  and  that  any  kind  of  labor  and 
machinery  could  be  used  which  should  serve  to  increase 
output.  The  government  guaranteed  the  wage  scale  and 
promised  to  limit  the  profits  of  employers. 

The  Labor  Commission  and  the  Present  Problem.  The 
labor  parties  to  this  agreement  failed  to  keep  it,  and 
strikes  went  on  during  the  remaining  years  of  the  war.  In 
1917,  the  British  Labor  party  published  a  report,  written 
by  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson,  setting  forth  "The  Aims  of 
Labor"  at  great  length,  which  "aims"  involved  nothing  less 
than  the  confiscation  of  all  property,  both  public  and  private, 
in  the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes,  home  rule  for  all 
nations,  and  the  creation  of  a  new  social  order  "based  not 
on  fighting  but  fraternity."  In  July,  1917,  the  Ministry  of 
Labor  published  an  official  report  prepared  by  J.  H.  A\hitley, 
M.P.,  recommending  "industrial  councils"  composed  of 
employers  and  workmen  —  one  for  each  plant  or  factory, 
one  for  each  industrial  district,  and  one  for  the  whole  nation. 
The  labor  problem  still  confronts  the  British  public,  and 
what  its  ultimate  solution  shall  be  must  be  left  for  the  future 
to  reveal. 

Government  of  India  Bill.  On  August  20,  1917,  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  new  policy  toward  India  was  made  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  This  policy  included  "The  increasing 
association  of  Indians  in  every  branch  of  the  administration, 


430  HOUSE    OF   WINDSOR  [1915 

and  the  gradual  development  of  self-governing  institutions 
with  a  view  to  the  progressive  realization  of  responsible 
government  in  India  as  an  integral  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire." The  "Government  of  India  Act"  of  December,  1919, 
provides  for  a  government  more  directly  responsible  to  the 
people  than  it  has  been  heretofore. 

The  Government  of  Ireland.  The  Home  Rule  Bill,  passed 
in  1914,  was  utterly  unacceptable  to  the  people  of  Ulster, 
who  threatened  civil  war  if  its  enforcement  was  attempted. 
It  was  equally  unacceptable  to  the  Irish  Republicans,  who 
cherished  the  hope  of  complete  independence,  and  who 
gradually  drew  together  into  an  organization  called  "Sinn 
Fein,"  a  Gaelic  phrase  meaning  "We  Ourselves."  The 
Sinn  Fein  was  founded  by  Arthur  Griffith  in  1915,  and 
combined  the  elements  in  Irish  politics  who  favored  setting 
up  an  independent  republic  in  Ireland  by  "direct  action" 
or  physical  force. 

The  Rebellion  of  April,  1916.  During  the  dark  days  of 
1915  certain  Irish  leaders  thought  they  saw  a  chance  to  break 
the  bonds  with  Great  Britain  and  set  up  an  independent 
state.  To  this. end  they  sought  the  aid  of  Germany,  and 
Sir  Roger  Casement,  a  retired  official  and  a  pensioner  of  the 
Crown,  went  first  to  America  and  then  to  Germany  to  arrange 
for  the  dispatch  to  Ireland  of  a  German  army  with  arms 
and  munitions,  and  for  a  simultaneous  attack  in  force  on  the 
coast  of  Britain.  All  loyal  Irish  Republicans  were  to  be 
aroused,  and  a  general  attack  was  to  be  made  on  the  British 
on  Easter  Eve,  April  22.  All  these  plans  miscarried;  the 
German  army  did  not  come,  the  munitions  ship  was  blown 
up  by  its  own  crew,  and  Casement  and  his  companions  were 
captured.  Nothing  daunted  by  this  situation,  the  Dublin 
Irish  Volunteers  seized  the  public  buildings  and  proclaimed 
the  Irish  Republic.  Padraic  Pearse  announced  himself 
as  commander  in  chief  of  the  Army  of  the  Republic,  and 


1921]  GEORGE    V.  431 

president  of  the  provisional  government,  and  declared: 
''\Ve  have  written  with  fire  and  steel  the  most  glorious 
chapter  in  the  history  of  Ireland."  On  Monday  British 
troops  began  to  arrive,  martial  law  was  declared,  and  on 
Saturday,  April  29,  Pearse  surrendered  and  the  rebellion  was 
at  an  end.  About  1000  Sinn  Fein  prisoners  were  taken  and 
fourteen  of  the  leaders  were  convicted  under  martial  law 
and  shot;  55  others  were  sentenced  to  life  imprisonment;  the 
remainder  of  the  prisoners  were  interned. 

Later  Developments  in  Ireland.  The  failure  of  the  up- 
rising did  not  discourage  the  Sinn  Fein,  and  they  declared 
a  war  to  the  death  with  Britain.  In  the  greater  part  of 
Ireland  they  carried  the  elections  of  1918,  refused  to  attend 
the  British  Parliament,  and  set  up  an  independent  legislature 
in  Dublin,  called  the  Dail  Eireann.  For  the  next  two 
years  Ireland  continued  in  a  state  of  war,  not  only  of  Irish 
Republicans  against  the  forces  of  the  Crown,  but  civil  war 
as  well.  Hundreds  of  people  were  killed,  homes  invaded 
and  burned  and  the  inmates  murdered,  and  public  buildings 
and  private  property  looted  and  destroyed. 

The  Revised  Home  Rule  Bill.  In  1920,  a  new  Home 
Rule  Bill  was  framed  for  the  government  of  Ireland,  which 
provided  for  separate  parliaments  for  the  North  and  South ; 
that  of  Ulster  was  to  sit  at  Belfast,  and  that  of  southern 
Ireland  at  Dublin.  The  Belfast  parliament  was  formally 
opened  by  the  king  in  July,  1921,  but  the  southern  parlia- 
ment could  not  be  organized  because  the  elected  delegates 
refused  to  attend.  During  1920  and  part  of  1921,  the  "war" 
went  on;  but  in  the  summer  of  1921  a  truce  was  agreed  on, 
and  the  British  premier  and  the  Irish  Republican  leaders 
met  in  conferences  in  an  effort  to  secure  lasting  peace. 


APPENDIX. 


CHRONOLOGICAL     TABLE:       IMPORTANT     EVENTS     AND 
DATES   IN   ENGLISH   HISTORY. 
THE  ROMAN  PERIOD,  55  B.  C.-410  A.  D. 

Caesar's   first   invasion 55  B.  C. 

Claudius  begins  conquest  of  Britain 43  A.  D. 

Revolt  of  Boadicea 61 

Agricola  builds  line  of  forts 81 

Hadrian's  Wall  begun 121 

Romans  leave  Britain 410 

THE  ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD,  449-1066. 

First  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  of  Britain 449 

Augustine  preaches   in   Kent 597 

Church  Council  of  Whitby 664 

First  invasion   of  the  Danes 787 

Death  of  Egbert,  first  king  of  all  England 839 

Reign  of  Alfred  the  Great 871-901 

Peace   of   Wedmore 878 

Massacre  of  Danes  in  England 1002 

Danish  Conquest  of  England 1013-6 

Canute   becomes   king 1016 

Edward  the  Confessor  becomes  king 1042 

Battle  of  Hastings 1066 

THE  NORMAN  PERIOD,  1066-1154. 

William  I 1066 

Charter  granted  to  London 1066 

Hereward  defeated  at  Ely 1071 

Landholders  swear  allegiance  to  William 1086 

William  Rufus 1087 

The  king  robs  the  church  of  its  revenue 1094 

Henry  1 1100 

The  first  charter  of  liberties  granted 1100 

Normandy  conquered  at  Tinchebrai 1106 

Princess  Matilda  marries  Geoffrey  Plantagenet  ....  1128 

Stephen 1135 

Civil  war  begins 1139 

Treaty  with  Henry  Plantagenet 1153 

NIVER  —  25  i 


ii  APPENDIX 

THE  PLANTAGENET  PERIOD,  1154-1399. 

Henry  II 1154 

Payment  of  scutage  established 1160 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon 1164 

Murder  of  Becket 1170 

Strongbow's  invasion  of  Ireland 1170 

Circuit  judges  appointed 1178 

Richard  1 1189 

Third  crusade 1190-1194 

John 1199 

Battle  of  Bouvines 1214 

The  Great  Charter '  1215 

John's  war  with  the  barons  and  death 1216 

Henry  III 1216 

The  Charter  confirmed  .  .  . 1216 

The  Friars  land  in  England 1221 

Coal  mines  opened 1234 

Battle  of  Lewes 1264 

De  Montfort's  Parliament 1265 

Battle  of  Evesham 1265 

Edward  1 1272 

Statute  of  Mortmain 1279 

The  Conquest  of  Wales 12S2-4 

Jews  driven  from  England 1290 

Model  Parliament  . 1295 

Confirmation  of  Charters 1297 

Scotland  conquered 1296-1304 

Edward  II 1307 

Battle  of  Bannockburn 1314 

Edward  deposed  and  murdered 1327 

Edicard  III 1327 

Independence  of  Scotland  admitted 1328 

Woolen  manufacture  introduced 1331 

House  of  Commons  becomes  a  distinct  body 1333 

Hundred  Years'  War  begun 1337 

Battle  of  Crecy 1346 

Capture  of  Calais 1347 

The  Black  Death 1348-9 

Staples  (market  towns)  established 1354 

Battle  of  Poitiers 1356 

Peace  of  Bretigny 1360 

Richard  II 1377 

Revolt  of  the  peasants 1381 

Chaucer  begins  the  "  Canterbury  Tales  " 1384 

Henry  Bolingbroke  returns  to  England 1399 

Parliament  chooses  Henry  king 1399 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  jij 

THE  LANCASTRIAN  PEEIOD,  1399-1461. 

Henry  IV. 1399 

Revolt  of  Glendower 1400 

Battle  of  Shrewsbury 1403 

Henry  V 1413 

Battle  of  Agincourt 1415 

Treaty  of  Troyes 1420 

Henry  VI 1422 

Siege  of  Orleans 1428-9 

Joan  of  Arc  burned 1431 

Jack  Cade's  Insurrection 1450 

End  of  Hundred  Years'  War  .  , 1453 

Wars  of  the  Roses  begin ;  battle  of  St.  Albans  .  .  '  .  .  .  1455 

Battles  of  second  St.  Albans  and  Towton 1461 

THE  YOKKIST  PERIOD,  1461-1485. 

Edward  IV 1461 

Warwick  restores  Henry  VI 1470 

Battles  of  Barnet  and  Tewkesbury 1471 

Death  of  Henry  VI.  in  the  Tower 1471 

Caxton  prints  the  first  book  in  England 1477 

Edward  V.;  murdered 1483 

Richard  III 1483 

Battle  of  Bosworth ;  end  of  Wars  of  the  Roses 1485 

THE  TUDOK  PERIOD,  1485-1603. 

Henry  VII 1485 

Court  of  Star  Chamber 1487 

Laws  against  retainers 1487 

First  voyage  of  John  Cabot 1497 

Henry  VIII 1509 

Battle  of  the  Spurs  and  battle  of  Flodden 1513 

Wolsey  becomes  chief  minister 1515 

Beginning  of  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany  ....  1517 

Henry  makes  himself  Supreme  Head  of  the  English  Church  .  1531 

Death  of  Sir  Thomas  More 1535 

Dissolution  of  the  monasteries 1536-9 

Edicard  VI 1547 

Battle  of  Pinkie 1547 

First  English  Prayer  Book 1549 

Act  of  Uniformity 1549 

The  Forty-two  Articles 1552 

Grammar  schools  and  hospitals  founded 1552-3 

Mary 1553 

Wyatt's  rebellion ;  Lady  Jane  Grey  executed 1554 

Reconciliation  with  the  Pope 1554 

Loss  of  Calais .  1558 


iv  APPENDIX 

Elizabeth '.  1558 

Protestantism    restored        1559 

John  Knox  preaches  in  Scotland 1559 

Mary  Stuart  lands  in  Scotland 1561 

Thirty-nine  Articles        15G2 

Slave  trade  begun  by  Hawkins 1562 

Drake's  great  voyage 1577-80 

Raleigh  sends  first  colony  to  Virginia 1585 

Execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 1587 

The  defeat  of  the  Armada 1588 

East  India  Company  chartered 1600 

Conquest  of  Ireland  completed 1603 

THE  STUABT  PERIOD,  1603-1689. 

James  1 1603 

Hampton  Court  Conference 1604 

Founding  of  Jamestown 1607 

Death  of  Shakespeare 1616 

Execution  of  Raleigh 1618 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  in  America     ....  1620 

Charles  1 1625 

The  Petition  of  Right 1628 

Wentworth  sent  to  Ireland  as  Deputy 1633 

Laud  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 1633 

Hampden  refuses  to  pay  ship  money 1637 

Long  Parliament  meets 1640 

Execution  of  Strafford 1641 

Civil  War  begins  at  Edgehill 1642 

Cromwell's  Ironsides  organized 1642 

The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant 1643 

Marston  Moor 1644 

Naseby 1645 

Execution  of  Charles  1 1649 

The  Commonwealth 1649-1653 

Cromwell  in  Ireland 1649-1650 

Battle  of  Dunbar 1650 

Battle  of  Worcester 1651 

Blake's  battles  with  the  Dutch 1652-3 

Cromwell  dismisses  the  Long  Parliament 1653 

The  Protectorate 1653-1660 

Death  of  Oliver  Cromwell ;  Richard  Cromwell  Protector     .      .  1658 

Charles   II.,   the   Restoration 1660 

Second  Dutch  War. 1664-7 

The   Plague   in   London 1665 

The  Great  Fire  in  London 1666 

Secret    treaty    of    Dover 1670 

Third  Dutch  War                                                                             .  1672-4 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  V 

The  Test  Act 1673 

Habeas  Corpus  Act 1679 

Rise  of  Whigs  and  Tories 1680 

Town  charters  revoked 1683-4 

James  II 1685 

Monmouth's  Rebellion 1685 

Trial  of  the  Seven  Bishops,  June 1688 

William  of  Orange  lands  in  England,  November  ....  1688 

William  III.  and  Mary  II 1689 

The  Bill  of  Rights 1689 

Mutiny  and  Toleration  Acts 1689 

War  of  the  Palatinate 1689-97 

Battle  of  the  Boyne 1690 

Battle  of  La  Hogue 1692 

Bank  of  England  founded 1694 

Freedom  of  the  press 1695 

Act  of  Settlement 1701 

Anne 1702 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession 1702-13 

Battle  of  Blenheim 1704 

Gibraltar  taken 1704 

Union  of  England  and  Scotland 1707 

THE  HANOVERIAN  PERIOD,  1714- 

George  I 1714 

Jacobite  Rebellion  in  Scotland 1715-16 

Septennial  Act 1716 

South  Sea  Company  and  others  fail 1721 

Walpole  prime  minister;  rise  of  the  Cabinet  ....  1721-42 

George  II , 1727 

War  of  Jenkins's  Ear  begins 1739 

England  in  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 1744-48 

Second.  Jacobite  Rebellion  in  Scotland 1745-46 

Battle  of  Culloden 1746 

"  New  Style  "  calendar  adopted 1752 

French  and  Indian  War 1754-63 

The  Seven  Years'  War 1756-63 

William  Pitt  (the  elder)  in  power 1757-61 

Clive  wins  the  battle  of  Plassey 1757 

Capture  of  Quebec 1759 

George  III .  1760 

The  Stamp  Act .  1765 

Watt  invents  the  condensing  steam  engine 1765 

Prison  reform  begun  by  John  Howard 1774 

Port  of  Boston  closed 1774 

American  Declaration  of  Independence 1776 

Burgoyne's  surrender  at  Saratoga 1777 


vi  APPENDIX 

Gordon  riots 1780 

Surrender  of  Cornwallis 

Treaty  of  Versailles;   United  States  independent 

French  Revolution  begun 17V. > 

Battle  of  the  Nile       17<)S 

Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 1^)0 

Peace  of  Amiens 1  si )_' 

Battle  of  Trafalgar 1805 

Slave  trade  abolished 1  so? 

War  with  the  United  States 1812-14 

Battle  of  Waterloo 1815 

George  IV       1820 

Repeal  of  Corporation  and  Test  Acts 1828 

Catholic  Emancipation        1829 

William  IV         1830 

Opening  of  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railroad N 1830 

Passage  of  the  Reform  Bill 1832 

Slavery  abolished  in  British  colonies 1833 

Monopoly  of  East  India  Company  abolished 1833 

New  poor  law         1834 

Victoria 1837 

Chartist  agitation 1837-48 

The  Opium  War 1839 

Penny  postage  established        1840 

Famine  in  Ireland 1845 

Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 1846 

First  World's  Fair 1851 

Crimean  War 1854-5 

The  Indian  Mutiny 1857 

Government  of  India  taken  from  East  India  Company    .     .     .  1858 

Second  Reform  Act 1867 

Canadian  Federation 1867 

Irish  Church  disestablished 1869 

Public  schools  established 1870 

Irish  Land  Act        1870 

Victoria  proclaimed  Empress  of  India 1877 

Third  Reform  Act 1884 

Sudan  War 1884-5 

Queen's  Jubilee 1887 

Jameson  Raid 1896 

Sudan  recovered          1898 

War  with  the  Boer  Republics 1899-1902 

Kilinirtl  VII 1901 

Bulfour  becomes  Premier 1902 

Free  schools  made  universal 1902 

Boer  War  ended  1902 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE  vii 

Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State  annexed     .      .     .     .     .  1902 

Irish  land  purchase  bill  . 1903 

Army  reform  begins  •. 1904 

Campbell-Bannerman  becomes  Premier 1905 

\Vorkingmen 's  compensation  act 1906 

First  Imperial  Conference 1907 

Old-age  Pension  act        1909 

Asquith  becomes  Premier 1909 

The  Lloyd-George  budget .  1909 

Death  of  Edward  VII 1910 

George  V 1910 

The  Parliament  bill 1911 

Plural  voting  bill 1912 

National  insurance  act .  1912 

Home  Rule  bill  passes 1914 

Welsh  church  disestablished 1914 

EVENTS  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR,  1914-1918. 

Germany  declares  war  on  France August    3,  1914 

Great  Britain  declares  war  on  Germany    ....  '4, 

Great  Britain  declares  war  on  Austria       ....  '      12, 

Marshal  French  lands'  troops  at  Boulogne      ...  '13, 

First  British  shot  fired  on  West  Front       ....  '22, 

Louvain  destroyed  by  Germans '      26, 

Rebellion  in  South  Africa 1914-15 

New  Zealand  captured  German  Samoa     .      .      .  August  31,  1914 

First  Battle  of  the  Marne September    6,     " 

First  Battle  of  Ypres October 

The  Emden  destroyed  by  the  Sydney  ....      November  9,     " 

Battle  of  Falkland  Islands December  7,     " 

Egyptian  Protectorate  declared December  18,     " 

Battle  of  Dogger  Bank January  24,  1915 

Gallipoli  expedition 1915-1916 

Battle  of  Neuve  Chapelle March  10,  1915 

Naval  attack  on  Dardanelles "       18,     " 

Second  Battle  of  Ypres  —  poison  gas  first  used    .      .      .   April  22,     " 

Lusitania  sunk — 1134  lives  lost May    7,     " 

German  S.  W.  Africa  surrendered        July    9,     " 

Edith  Cavell  shot October  12,     " 

Great  Britain  declares  war  on  Bulgaria     ....'"       15,     " 
Haig  appointed  to  command  in  the  West       .      .      .    January    1,  1916 

Gallipoli  evacuated 8,     " 

German  Kamerun  taken February  18, 

The  Sussex  torpedoed March  24,     " 

French  Counter-attack  at  Verdun "      29, 

Sinn  Fein  Rebellion April  22,     " 


viii  APPENDIX 

Battle  of  Vimy  Ridge May  15,  1916 

Military  service  act  passed "     25,  " 

Battle  of  Jutland "     31,  " 

Kitchener  drowned June    5, 

First  Battle  of  the  Somme July    1,  " 

Captain  Fryatt  shot "     27,  " 

Tanks  first  used September  15,  " 

French  Victory  at  Verdun         October  24,  " 

Germany  begins  "unrestricted  submarine  warfare"  .  February    1,  1917 

Capture  of  Bagdad  by  British March  11,  " 

Russian  Czar  abdicates "      15,  " 

Second  Battle  of  the  Somme "      16,  " 

United  States  enters  the  war April    6,  " 

Battle  of  Arras '  .        "      9,  " 

French  advance  on  the  Aisne "     16,  " 

Australians  break  the  "Hindenburg  Line"     ....    May    3,  " 

Battle  of  Messines June    7,  " 

Third  Battle  of  Ypres July  31,  " 

General  Allenby  enters  Jerusalem December  10,  " 

Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk March    2,  1918 

Great  German  Offensive  begins "      21,  " 

Third  Battle  of  the  Somme "      21,  " 

Foch  made  supreme  commander 29,  " 

Attack  on  Zeebrugge  and  Ostend April,  " 

Battle  of  Chateau-Thierry June    2,  " 

Belleau  Wood  taken  by  Americans "     10,  " 

Second  Battle  of  the  Marne July  15,  " 

Allied  counter-offensive  begins "     18,  " 

Retreat  of  the  Germans  in  the  West    ....      September    1, 

Surrender  of  Turkey October  30, 

German  Kaiser  abdicates November    9, 

Armistice  Day 11, 

German  fleet  surrenders "  21, 

British  troops  enter  Germany December    1, 

General  election  —  Great  Coalition  victory    . 

Treaty  of  Peace  signed  at  Versailles June  28,  1919 

Government  of  India  act December  23,  " 


BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE. 


Source  Books:  C.  W.  Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources  of  English  History 
(Longmans,  N.  Y.).  E.  Kendall,  Source  Book  of  English  History  (Macmillan, 
N.  Y.).  G.  C.  Lee,  Source  Book  of  English  History  (Macmillan). 

General  Works :  J.  F.  Bright,  English  History,  4  vols.  E.  P.  Button  & 
Co.,  X.  Y.).  E.  P.  Cheyney,  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England  (Mac- 
millan, N.  Y.).  J.  A.  Froude,  History  of  England,  12  vols.  (Scribner,  N.  Y.). 
S.  R.  Gardiner,  Student's  History  of  England  (Longmans,  N.  Y.) ;  Atlas  of 
English  History  (Longmans).  J.  R.  Green,  A  Short  History  of  the  English 
People  (American  Book  Company) ;  Readings  from  English  History  (Harper. 
N.  Y.).  Guest  and  Underwood,  Handbook  of  English  History  (Macmillan). 
David  Hume,  History  of  England  (Student's  Series,  American  Book  Com- 
pany). J.  Lingard,  The  History  of  England  (Murphy,  Baltimore).  H.  D. 
Traill,  Social  England,  6  vols.  (Putnam,  N.  Y.). 

Special  Works:  A.  J.  Church,  Story  of  Early  Britain  (Putnam,  N.  Y.). 
E.  A.  Freeman,  Old-English  History  (Macmillan,  N.  Y.).  S.  O.  Jewett, 
Story  of  the  Xormans  (Putnam) .  W.  Stubbs,  The  Early  Plantagenets  (Long- 
mans, X.  Y.).  M.  Creighton,  The  Tudors  and  the  Reformation  (Longmans); 
Age  of  Elizabeth  (Longmans).  E.  J.  Payne,  Voyages  of  Elizabethan  Seamen 
(Oxford).  E.  E.  Hale,  Fall  of  the  Stuarts  (Longmans).  T.  B.  Macaulay, 
History  of  England  from  the  Time  of  James  II.,  3  vols.  (Longmans).  E.  E. 
Morris,  The  Age  of  Anne  (Estes,  N.  Y.).  J.  McCarthy,  A  Short  History  of 
Our  Own  Times,  2  vols.  (F.  A.  Stokes,  N.  Y.).  W.  S.  Churchill,  London  to 
Ladysmith  (Longmans).  J.  R.  Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England  (Little, 
Boston).  J.  Hight,  The  English  as  a  Colonizing  Nation  (Whitcombe  & 
Tombs,  London).  G.  E.  Bolen,  Plain  Facts  as  to  the  Trusts  and  the  Tariff 
(Macmillan).  E.  Lawless,  Story  of  Ireland  (Putnam). 

Government :  Acland  and  Ransome,  A  Handbook  in  Outline  of  the  Politi- 
cal History  of  England  to  1896  (Longmans,  X.  Y.).  E.  S.  Creasy,  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  English  Constitution  (Appleton,  N.  Y.).  Louise  Creighton, 
The  Government  of  England  (Longmans).  T.  F.  Moran,  The  English  Gov- 
ernment (Longmans). 

Biography :  T.  Hughes,  Life  of  King  Alfred  (Macmillan,  N.  Y.).  Agnes 
Strickland,  The  Queens  of  England  (American  Book  Company).  Alice 
Green,  Henry  the  Second  (Macmillan).  M.  Creighton.  Simon  de  Montfort 
(Longmans,  N.  Y.).  R.  H.  Blades,  Caxton  (Hardwicke,  London).  Goldwin 
Smith,  Three  English  Statesmen  (Pym,  Pitt,  and  Cromwell)  (Macmillan). 
C.  H.  Firth,  Cromwell  (Putnam,  X.  Y.).  J.  Morley,  Walpole  (Macmillan). 
W.  Besant,  Captain  Cook  (Macmillan,  X.  Y.).  W.  C.  Russell,  Nelson  (Put- 
nam). G.  Russell,  Life  of  Gladstone  (Harper,  N.  Y.). 


PRONOUNCING   INDEX 


Key  to  pronunciation:  a  in  late,  a  in  senate,  a  in  fat,  &  in  care,  a  in  far,  a  in  last,  a  in  fall, 
a  in  final;  e  in  me,  6  in  event,  g  in  met,  e  in  term,  e  in  recent ;  I  in  fine,  I  in  tin;  6  in  note,  6 
in  6bey,  8  in  n5t,  6  in  f6r,  oo  in  loop,  do  in  book;  x  =  ng,  in  its  effect  on  the  preceding 
vowel,  but  is  itself  silent;  li  in  tune,  u  in  nut,  u  in  rude,  u  in  full,  d  in  burn,  ii  =  French  u. 


Aboukir  Bay  (a-boo-ker')      ....  330 

Acadia        271 

Acre  (a'ker) 85 

Addington,  Henry 334 

Addison,  Joseph 281 

Aetius  (a-e'shl-us) 25 

Afghanistan  (af-gan-Is-tan')       .     365,  382 

Aghrim  (ag'rfm) 268 

Agincourt  (a-zhaN-koor')       ....   137 
Agriculture       .       171,   174,   191,  201,  320 

Aids 61 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks-la-sha-pel ') 

treaty  of 292 

Akbar  Khan  (akToer  kan)     .     .     .     .335 

Alabama  claims 377 

Albert,  Prince  Consort  359,  360,  367,  376 

Al'bi-on 13 

Alexander  1 332 

Alfred  the  Great 39-46 

Algiers  (al-jerz') 234 

Al'len-by,  General 419 

Alsace-Lorraine  (al-sas'-I6-ran')    412,  427 
American  colonies,  199,  211,  212,  217,  240, 

253,  254,  251,  290,  291,  302-307,  309-315 
Amiens  (a-me-ax'),  treaty  of  ...  333 
Amusements,  time  of  Elizabeth  201,  _'  _' 

Anderi'da 29 

Angles 26-28,  32 

An'gle-sey 21 

Anglican  Church,  see  Church  of  England. 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  38,  45,  62,  71,  72 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms     ....  31,  32 

Anglo-Saxons 26-35 

Anjou  (ax-zhoo')     ....      71,  73,  83 

Anne,  Queen 249,  273.   L'T  I 

Anne  of  Cleves  (klevz) 170 

Anselm 66,  68 

Anti-Corn-Law  League 366 

Antoni'nus 23 

Appeals  to  the  Pope 169 

Aquitaine  (ak-we-tan')       .      73,   120,   121 
Arabi  Pasha  (a-ra'be  pa-sha')  .     .     .384 

Archer,  Thomas 157 

Archery,  English 108,   116 

Arcot  (ar-k6t'),  siege  of  .     .     .     300,  301 


Ar-gyle',  Earl  of 285 

Ark'low 334 

Arkwright,  Richard 3'22 

Anna 'da,  the  Great 192 

Armagnac  (ar-man-yak')       ....   137 

Armistice,  World  War 426 

Arras  (a-ras'),  battle  of 421 

Arthur,  Duke  of  Brittany      .     .     .90,  91 

Arthur,  King 31 

Arthur,  son  of  Henry  VII      .     .     .     .160 

Articles 172,   175 

Attainder,  act  of 221,  267 

Au'gustine 34 

Australia 364,  402,  417 

Austria      .     272,  292,  341,  351,  413,  418 
Austrian  Succession,  War  of  the     .     .  292 

Bacon,  Francis    ....     200,  201,  207 

Bacon,  Roger 101 

Ba'don  Hill 31 

Bagdad  (bag-dad'),  capture  of       419-420 

Bagdad  Railroad 412 

Bakewell,  Robert 320 

Balaclava  (ba-la-kla'va)        .     .     368-370 

Balance  of  power 165,  271 

Bal 'four,  Arthur  J 404 

B.iliol  (ba'll-ul),  Edward       .     .     .     .114 

Baliol,  John 105 

Ball,  John 127 

Ballot  Act :;.s() 

Baltic,  battle  of  the 331 

Baltimore,  Lord 240 

Bank  of  England 269 

Bannockburn,  battle  of     .     .     .    110,   111 

Barba'dos 240,  241 

Barebones'  Parliament 236 

Bar'net,  battle  of 148 

Barons'  War 98 

Battlo  Abbey 54 

Bavaria 275 

Bayeux  tapestry  (ba-y§0      •     •     .  53,  54 

Baylen  (bl-ldn')        340 

Beaohy  Head,  battle  of 268 

Hi'iuVlort,  June 136 

Bucket.  Thomas  a 80,  81 


INDEX 


XI 


Bede  (bed),  the  Venerable  ....  33 

Benedict,  Saint 34: 

Benevolences 149,  159 

Bethmann-Hollweg  (bat'man-hftl'- 

vak) 413 

Big'od,  Roger 9S 

Bill  of  Rights 203 

Bishops,  the  seven 259,  2oO 

Bishops'  Wars,  the 220,  221 

Black  death 118,  119 

Black  Prince  .  .  117,  120,  121,  123 

Blake,  Robert 234 

Blenheim  (bldnlm) 275 

Blockade  Runners 377 

Blois  (blwa) 71 

Bloody  Assizes 257 

Blore  Heath,  battle  of 145 

Blucher  (blu'ker) 343 

Bo-a-di-ce'a 21,  22 

Board  Schools 378 

Boer  Wars  (boor)  .  .  .  383,  387-390 

Boers 405 

Boleyn  (bool'm),  Anne 167 

Bolingbroke  (bol 'In-brook) ,  Henry  130-136 

Bombay' 243 

Book  of  Common  Prayer  ....  175 

Bordeaux  (bor-do') 121 

Bosworth,  battle  of lot 

Bothwell,  Lord 187 

Boulogne  (boo-lon') 336 

Bouvines  (boo-vtn'),  battle  of  .  .  .  91 

Boyle  (boil),  Robert 282 

Boyne  (boin),  battle  of  the  ....  268 

Braddock,  General 304 

Bradshaw,  John 231 

Brahe  (bra),  Tycho 282 

Braose  (bra-6z'),  William  of  ...  93 
Bretigny  (brf-ten-y!'),  peace  of  .  .  121 

Bret'walda 32 

Bridgewater,  Duke  of 321 

Bright,  John 306 

Brindley,  James 321 

Britain,  early  races  in  .  ...  9,  11,  13 

British  Empire 399-403 

British  Isles 10 

Britons 13,  14-20,  32 

Bronze  Age 12,  13 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett  .  .  .  395 

Browning,  Robert 395 

Bruce,  David 113,  121 

Bruce,  Robert  ....  109,  110,  111 

Bruges  (bru'jfiz) 115,  125 

Buckingham  (buk 'ing-am),  Henry 

Stafford,  Duke  of  ....  151-154 
Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  Duke 

of 209,  214,  215 

Bulgaria 413 

Bunker  Hill,  battle  of 313 


Bunyan,  John 244 

Burgh,  Hubert  de 97 

Burgoyne  (bur-goin') 313 

Bur 'gundy,   Duke  of  ....    135,   139 

Burns,  Robert Ill 

Bury  St.  Edmunds 93,  94 

Butter,  Nathaniel 281 

Byng,  Admiral 304 

Byron,  Lord   .  347,  351 

Cabal',  the 247,  248 

Cabinet      .     .     .  278,  284,  285,  398,  399 

Cabots,  the 161 

Cade,  Jack 144 

Ca'diz 214 

Caerleon  (kar-le'un) 31 

Csesar,  Julius 14-20 

Calais  (ka-la')     ....      117,   125,   181 
Calcut'ta,  Black  Hole  of       .     .    301,  302 

Cal'vin,  John 186 

Calvinists 195 

Canada 307,  302,  402 

Canals 320,  321 

Canning,  George      .     .     .     309,  340,  352 

Canon  Law 219 

Canterbury,  Archbishop  of       ...     79 
"Canterbury  Tales1'    ....    123,  124 

Canute  (ka-nat') 48 

Cape  Colony 383,  402 

Capital  and  labor 392-394 

Carac'tacus 20 

Car'adoc 20 

Carlyle  (kar-ffl'),  Thomas     .     .     .     .396 

Carnar'von .  104 

Carolinas 253 

Carr,  Robert 208 

Cart wright,  Edward 322 

Carver,  John        211 

Casement,  Sir  Roger 430 

Cassivelau 'nus 16 

Castles       ....     43,  56,  71,  77,   157 

Caswal'lon 16 

Catesby,  Robert 206 

Catherine  of  Ar'agon  160,   162,   167,   168 

Catherine  of  Bragan'za 243 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act  ....  350 
Catholics,  English     .     194,  213,  214,  350 

Cato  Street  conspiracy 349 

Cavalier  Parliament 244 

Cavaliers' 224,  240 

Cav'endish,  Thomas 199 

Cawnpur  (can-poor') 372 

Caxton,  William 150 

Cecil  (scsll),  Robert 203 

Cecil,  Sir  William 184 

Celts  (see  Britons,  and  Scots)     .     .  13,   14 

Cet-e-wa'yo 383 

Chaluz  (sha-liis') 87 


Xll 


INDEX 


Chancellor,  Richard     ......  198 

Char'ing  Cross    ........   103 

Chariots,  British  war  ......     18 

Charles  I., 

208-210,  213-215,  217-221,  225-229 
Charles  II.  .  .  233,  239,  242-244,  218 
Charles  V.,  German  emperor  .  163,  139 


.   135 

334 

.  271 

.  292 

..   107 

85,  251 


150 

80 

245 

2(1 


Charles  VI.,  King  ot  France 

Charles  X.  of  France 

Charles,  Archduke  of  Austria 

Charles,  son  of  James  Edward 

Charters,  Confirmation  cf      . 

Charters,  town 

Chartists    ........    360,  361 

Chateau-Thierry  (sha-to'-tyar-re')         42"> 
Chau'cer,  Geoffrey       ....     123,   121 

Chev'y  Chase,  Ballad  of       ....   129 

China,  wars  with      .  .     333,  373,  374 

Chivalry    ..........     88 

Church,  early      .     .     .25,  34,  69,  79,  80 
Church  of  England, 

169,  172,  175,  180,  183,  194,  205,  222,  252 
Churchill,  John     .     .     .     .     .     .  271  J7^ 

Churls  ...........     27 

Civil  War,  American    ....    376,377 

Civil  War,  English  .....     225-228 

Clare,  Richard  de    .......     82 

Clarence,  Duke  of   .....     148, 

Clar'endon,  Constitutions  of     ... 
Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of      . 
Clau'di-us       ......... 

Claverhouse  (kla'verz)      .     .     .    25.5,  2  i"> 
Clive,  Robert      ......     299-302 

Cloth,  manufacture  ot      .      124.   197,  280 
Coalition  Cabinet    .......  415 

Cobden,  Richard      .......  366 

Cffiur  de  Lion  (ker  de  IC-ON')     ...     87 
Coinage     ....  .     .    197,  270 

Coke,  Sir  Edward    ......  209 

Col'chester     .  ......          21 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor      ....  347 

Col'et,  John  ........   165 

Cologne  (k6-lon')     .......   125 

Colonial  policy    ...  312,  317,  399 

Colonies,  German    .......  420 

Colonies,  government  of  ...    399,  402 
Colum'ba,  Saint       .......     36 

Columbus  ..........  160 

Commerce,  see  Trade 

Commonwealth,  the     ....     231-236 

Compurgation     .......  41,    t.~> 

Conquests  of  England       .     .     .         ">t.  .">."> 
Conventicle     .........  244 

Convention  Parliament     .     .     .    243,  244 
Copenhagen        ........  331 

Corn  Laws      .....     345,  366,  367 

Cornwal'lis     .........  315 

Coronation  chair      .     .  .         107 


Corun'na,  battle  of 

Cor'yat,  Thomas     . 

Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore 
i  Covenant       .     .     .      22, t, 
|  Covenanters 

Cranmer,  Thomas     .     168, 
kra-sS'),  battle  of 

Cri-me'an  War  .     .     . 

Criminal  law        .... 

Criminals 

Croft,  James 

Crompton,  Samuel  .     .     . 

Cromwell,  Oliver     .     .  '227, 

Cromwell,  Richard 

Cromwell,  Thomas 

Crusades 

Crystal  Palalce   .... 

Cullo'den,  battle  of      .     . 

Cumberland,  Duke  of  . 

Cy'prus 


.  ...  341 
.  .  211,  212 
.  ...  23 
226,  227,  255 
221,  252,  255 
169,  175,  180 
.  .  .  .  116 
.  .  367-371 
294,  345,  349 
.  .  175 
.  .  .  .320 
.  ...  322 
228,  231-238 
.  ...  238 
.  .  168,  170 
.  .  67,  84-86 
.  .  .  .367 
.  ...  293 
.  .  .  .  :>.->s 
.  .  .  .313 


Dail  Eireann  (dal  a 'ran)        ....  431 
Danes    ....      38,  39,  40-13,  47,  48 

Darnley,  Lord 187 

Darwin,  Charles 396 

Declaration  of  Independence     .     .     .  313 
Declaration  of  Indulgence      248,  258,  259 

De  Foe,  Daniel 281 

De'i-ra 33 

i  Delaware 254 

|  De  Lesseps' 382 

Delhi  (del'$) 299,  410 

Denmark 272,  331 

I)  -~!>ensers,  the 112 

Det 'ting-en,  battle  of 292 

.  .  395 
.  .  325 
.  .  258 
Lord 
366,  381 
205,  244 
.  .  204 
423 

.  .  62 
.  .  100 
.  .  141 


Dickens,  Charles 

Directory,  French 

Dispensing  power 

Di-'ai'h    (diz-ru'lf),    Benjamin, 

Beaconsfield 

Dis.-i  -nters 194, 

Divine  right  of  kings    ... 
Dogger  Bank,  naval  battle     .     . 

Domesday  Book 

Dom'inic,  Saint 

Domr6mi  (dox-ri-mS') 

Dost   Mohammed  (dost  mo-ham 


Dover,  secret  treaty  of 
Drake,  Sir  Francis  .     .     . 

Dresden,  ship 

Drog'heda 

Druids 

Du'nii-jec  (.yek),  battle  of 
Dunbar',  battle  ot  .  .  . 
Duncan,  Admiral  . 

Dun 'kirk         

Dunstan    .... 


'ed) 
:>!>">,  366 
.  ...  248 
190,  191,  195 
.  .  .  423 
.  .  231,  233 
.  .  .19,  21 
.  .  .  417 
.  ...  233 
.  .  . 

.     .    235,  245 
.  .     .     47 


INDEX 


Xlll 


Dupleix  (dii-pla')     .......  299 

Duquesne  (du-kan'),  Fort          .     .     .302 

Dur'bar 409 

Dutch  Wars   .     .  233,  234,  245,  246,  248 

Duty,  export 103 

import  214,  255,  318,  365,  366,  367 

East  India  Company . 

199,  211,  241,  299,  357,  358,  373 

Eastern  Question 363,  381 

Eddington,  battle  of 41 

Edgar 47 

Edgehill,  battle  of 226 

Education  Acts  .     .      378,  405,  407,  408 

Edward  the  Confessor 48 

Edward  the  Martyr 47 

Edward  1 99-109 

Edward  II 109-112 

Edward  III 113-123 

Edward  IV 146-148 

Edward  V 150-153 

Edward  VI 173-176 

Edward  VII 404-409 

Edwin,  Earl 51,  58,  59 

Edwin,  King  of  Northumbria    ...     35 

Egbert 37-39 

Egypt 382,  384,  387,  419 

Eleanor  of  Castile 102,   103 

Eleanor  of  France 73,  83 

Eliot,  Sir  John 214,  216 

Elizabeth  .     .     .    182-185,   190,   193,   197 

Emma  of  Normandy 48,  49 

English  Church,  see  Church  of  England 

English  race 9,  32,  38,  91 

Eras'mus 165,   166 

Established  Church,  see  Church  of  England 

Eth'elbert 34 

Eth'elred  1 40 

Ethelred  II 47,  48 

Evesham  (evz'ham)     ....      99,   100 
Excommunication 92 


Factory  legislation  . 
Factory  system  .... 
Fairfax,  Lord      .... 

Fairs 

Falkirk,  battle  of     ... 
Farming  improved  . 
Fawkes  (faks),  Guy      .     . 

Fealty 

Federation  of  employers  . 
Federation  of  unions    . 
Fenian  movement    .     . 
Feudal  system     .... 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold 
Fitzwalter,  Robert  . 

Flanders 

Flemish  in  England      .     . 


171, 


357,  393 
391-393 
.  .  227 
103,  125 
.  .  108 
201,  320 
206.  207 
.  .  62 
.  .  393 
392.  393 
378,  379 
.  .  62 
165 

.     .     95 

115,  197 

.  197 


Flodden  Field,  battle  of 163 

Foch  (f6sh),  Marshal 425 

Forests 62,  218,  222 

Foth'eringay  Castle 188 

France,  wars  with,  83,  90,  91,  96,  114-118, 

120,   121,   126,   137-142,   163,   181,  214, 

215,  235,  264,  265,  268-279,  292,  299- 

307,  314,  327-344 

Francis  I.,  King  of  France    ....  165 

Francis  Ferdinand 413 

Francis,  Saint 100 

Frederick  the  Elector  ....    208,  212 

Frederick  the  Great 305 

Freeman,  Edward  Augustus.     .     .     .  396 
French  and  Indian  War   .     .     .     305-307 

Friars 100 

Frob'isher,  Martin 199 

Froude  (frood),  James  Anthony     .     .  396 

Gaels 13,  23 

Galile'o 282 

Gallipoli  (gal-le'po-le) 417 

Garter,  Order  of  the 118 

Gas,  poison 421 

Gaul 14,   16,   17,   19 

Gav'eston,  Piers 109,   110 

Genoa  (jSn'6-a),  trade  of       ....  126 

George  1 284,  285 

George  II 289-292 

George  III 308-315,  346 

George  IV 348,  354 

George  V 406,  409 

Georgia 291 

German  Empire       .     .     .      380,  411-413 

Germanic  races 26,  27,  28 

Ghent  (gent),  treaty  of 344 

Gibbon,  Edward 347 

Gibraltar  (jl-bral'ter)  ....    277,  402 
Gladstone  (glad 'stun),  William  Ewart 

379,  380,  385-.3S7 

Glendower  (glSn'door),  Owen   .     .     .   134 
Gloucester  (glos'ter),  Richard,  Duke 

ot 150-154 

Gloucester,  Thomas,  Duke  of    .     128-130 
Gloucester,  Robert,  Earl  of  ....     73 

Godwin,  Earl 48 

Goldsmith,  Oliver .     .  347 

Gordon,  General 384,  385 

Gordon  Riots 315,  316 

Government 396-403 

Grand  Alliance 272 

Grand  jury 78 

Grand  Remonstrance  ...  .        223 

Great  Britain 11.  277 

Great  Charter     ....  .    93-95 

Great  Council,  Norman    .  .     .     64 

Great  Fire 246,  .247 

Great  Plague 246 


XIV 


INDEX 


Greece 351 

Greg'ory  the  Great      ...      33,  34,  45 

Gregory  VII 63 

Grenville,  George  .  .  .  308,  309.  310 
Grenville,  Sir  Richard  .  .  .195.  196 

Grey,  Lady  Jane 177,  180 

Grey,  Sir  Edward 407 

Griffith,  Arthur 430 

Guienne  (ge-Sn') 121 

Guilds 45,  100,  124,  126 

Gunpowder 157 

Gunpowder  plot 206 

Guthrum  (gooth'room)     .     .     .     .  41,  43 

Ha  'be-as  Corpus  Act 250 

Ha'drian,  Wall  of 23 

Haidarabad  (hl-dar-a-bad')  ....  314 

Haig,  Sir  Douglas 421 

Hal'idon  Hill 113 

Hampden,  John  .  .  ,  214,  219,  226 
Hampton  Court  Conference  .  .  .  205 
Han 'over  ......  279,  292,  358 

Hanover,  House  of 284 

Han-se-at'ic  League 125 

Har'dicanute 48 

Har'drada,  King  of  Norway  .  .  51,  52 

Har'greaves,  James 321 

Harold  1 48 

Harold  II 49-53 

Harold  Har'drada 51,  52 

Hasting,  the  Dane 43 

Hastings,  battle  of 52-54 

Hastings,  Warren 316 

Havelock  (hav'e-lok).  General  .  .  .  373 
Hawkins,  Captain  John  .  .  .  189,  195 

Hedjaz  (h6j-az') 419 

Hengist  (hgng'glst) 29 

Henry  1 65,  68-70 

Henry  II 73-84 

Henry  III 96-97,  100 

Henry  IV 130-133,  135,  136 

Henry  V 137-139 

Henry  VI 140-145,  148 

Henry  VII 153-Kil 

Henry  VIII 162-172 

Heretics 133 

Hgr'eward 59,  60 

High  Church  party  .  .  194,  216.  277 
High  Commission  Court  .  .  .  194,  222 

Hill,  Rowland 362 

Hin'denburg,  von 421 

Hindenburg  Line 421 

Hoche  (6sh),  General 333 

Hohenzolleni  (ho-en-ts&l'ern),  House 

of 411 

Holland, 

189,  233,  234,  245,  246,  248,  275,  298 
Holy  Alliance 351,  352 


Horn  'ildon  Hill,  battle  of      ....  134 

Hongkong' 363 

House  of  Commons,  64,  65,  121,  126,  136, 

390-398;  see  Reform 

Howard,  Admiral          ....    192,    195 
Howard,  Catherine       .....   170 

Howard,  Jonn 290 

Hume,  David 347 

Hundred  Years'  War 

ll-t-121,  126,  137-142 
Hussein  (hoo-san').  Sherif  of  Mecca  .  419 
Huxley,  Thomas 396 

Impeachment 143 

Imperial  Conference 427 

Independents       228 

India,     199,    243,     299-302,     316,     330, 
371-373,  402.  417.  429 

Indian  Mutiny 371-373 

Industrial  revolution 391 

Innocent  III 92 

Instrument  of  Government  ....  230 

Insurance  Act 410 

Interdict 92 

Inventions,  mechanical   321,  322,  352,  353 

Ireland        23,   190 

union  with  England       ....  334 

famine 366 

Home  Rule  Bill     .     .     410,  430,  431 
reforms  in    .     .       379,  380,  380,  404 

Isabella  of  France 112,   113 

Italy 161,  163,  166,  351,  418 

in  World  War 418 

Jac'obites 2G4,  285 

Jamaica 241,  402 

James  1 2.W-212 

James  II.  249-253,  255-201,  20.S,  271 
James,  Prince  of  Scotland  .  .  135,  136 
James  Edward,  "the  Pretender,"  son 

of  James  II 279,  285 

Jameson's  raid 388 

Jeffreys,  Judge 257 

Jenkinson.  Anthony 199 

Jenkins's  Ear,  War  of       ...    290,  291 

Jennings,  Sarah 278 

Jerusalem 419 

Jes'u-its 191 

.lews 85,   104,  238,  375 

Joan  of  Arc 140-142 

Joffre  (zhfi'fr'),  Marshal  .  .  .  414-U5 
Johannesburg  (yo-hiin'no's-burg)  .  .  388 
John,  Kins:  of  England  83,  84,  80,  90-96 

John,  Kinj;  of  Kranee 120 

John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lam-aster, 

121,   122,   128,  129 

Johnson,  Samuel 347 

Judges,  the  king's 77 


INDEX 


XV 


Junius 319 

Jurors 45 

Jury  trial 78 

Justiciar 89 

Jutes     . 29 

Jutland,  naval  battle 423 

Kabul  (kaTjul),  retreat  from      .     .     .365 

Kandahar' 382 

Ken  'ihvorth  Castle 146 

Kent !     ...     29 

Ket,  Robert 176 

Khartum  (kar-toom')        384 


Kiaoehow  (kyou'cho') 420 

Kim'berley 389,  390 

King,  compared  with  President     398,  399 

Kinj:  Gt-orire's  War 292 

King  William's  War 271 

King's  judges 77 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of  ....  314 

Kitchener,   General      ....    387,  390 

Knighthood 87,  88 

Knight's  fees 61 

Knox  (noks),  John 186 

Kruger  (kru'ger),  President       .     .     .388 

Kut-el-A-ma'ra 420 

Labor,  organization  of 392 

Labor  Problem 428-429 

Laborers,  statute  of 119 

Lady  smith      . 389,  390 

La  Hogue  (la  hog'),  battle  of    .     .     .  268 

Lake  School  of  Poetry 347 

Lancaster     (lang'kas-ter),     John     of 
Gaunt,  Duke  of  .      121,  122,  128,  129 

Lancaster,  House  of 133 

Land  Acts,  Irish      .     .     .     380,  385,  404 

Lan 'franc        64 

Langton,  Stephen  ....  91,  92,  96 
La  Rochelle  (la  r6-shel')  ....  215 

Laud,  William 216,  219 

impeachment  and  death  of     .     .  222 

Layamon  (la'-ya-mon) 100 

League  of  Nations 427 

Learning,  the  New 166 

Leicester  (les'ter),  Earl  of  ....  189 
Leipzig  (Hp'slk),  battle  of  ....  342 
Le'opold,  Duke  of  Austria  ....  85 

Lewes  (lu'Is),  battle  of 98 

Lexington,  battle  of 313 

Liberal  Unionism 407 

Liege  (le-ezh') 414 

Ligny  den-ye'),  battle  of  ....  343 
Lincoln  (Hng'kun),  battle  of  ...  73 

Lisle  (HI),  Alice 257 

Literature,  English, 

123,  200,  281,  346,  394-396 
Little  Parliament 236 


Llewellyn  (16t>-el'lln) 

Lloyd  George,  David, 

407,  408,  415,  416, 

Local  Government  Law 

i  Loch  Lev'en  (16k) 

Lollards 127,  136, 

London       21,  32.  56,   125,  224,  226, 

London  Company 210, 

Londonderry 

Long  Parliament     .     .     .     221,  235, 

Loom 

Lords  Ordainers Ill, 

Louis  IX.  of  France 

Louis  XIV.  of  France       .     258,  272, 

Louisburg 

Low  Church  party 

Lii'beck 

Luck 'now 

Lusitania  (lu-si-ta'ni-a) 

Luther,  Martin 

McAdam 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington  . 
Madras' 


104 

428 
386 
187 
137 
251 
211 
267 
239 
322 
112 
98 
324 
292 
277 
125 
373 
424 
166 

354 
396 
299 

Ma-fe-king' 389,  390 

Mag'na  Charta  (kar'ta)  ....    93-95 
Mahrattas  (ma-rat 'taz)    .     .     .    316,  330 

Maid  of  Norway 105 

Maju'ba  Hill,  battle  of 384 

Malcolm  (mil  'kum),  King  of  Scotland     60 
Malplaquet  (mal-pla-ka ')      ....  276 

Manchester  Massacre 348 

Manorial  system 119 

Manufactures,  beginning  of  124,  197,  280 
domestic  system  of  322,  391 
Margaret  of  Anjou  .     .     .      142,   146,   148 
Marlborough        (rnal1>ur-d),       John 

Churchill,  Duke  of   ....     274-278 
Marne  (marn),  battles  of  the 

414,  415,  425 

Marston  Moor 227,  228 

Mary  1 176-180 

Mary  II 249 

Mary  of  Guise  (gez) 186 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  ....     186-191 

Maryland 240 

Massachusetts 217,  240 

Ma>s«'na  (ma-sd-na') 341 

Matilda 71-73 

Maude,  General 420 

Mehemet  AH  (ma'he-m8t  a  '16)       .     .  364 
Melbourne  (mel  burn).  Lord     ...  364 

Mercia 32,  50 

Mesopotamia 419 

Messines  (mes-sen')  Ridge    ....  421 

Methodism 294-296 

Middle  Ages 161 

Mil 'an  Decree     .     .  ...  339 


XVI 


TNDEX 


Militia 43,  103 

Milton,  John 244 

Minden,  battle  of 305 

Mining 11,   13,  280,  321 

Model,  the  new 228 

Model  Parliament 107 

Monasteries  ....     34,  98,   170,   171 

Monastic  system 34 

Monk,  George 227,  239 

Monmouth        (m8n'muth),       James 
Stuart,  Duke  of   .     .     .     251,  250,  257 

Monopolies 197,  218 

Mon-roe'  Doctrine 352 

Mont 'fort,  Simon  de    .     .     .    98,  99,  100 

Moore,  Sir  John 341 

More,  Sir  Thomas 165,  169 

Mor'kar,  Earl 51,  59 

Mor'timer,  Roger 112,   113 

Mortimer's  Cross 145 

Mortmain,  Statute  of 103 

Murshidabad  (moor-she'd-a-bad')  .     .  302 

Mutiny  Act 264 

Mutiny  at  Spithead  and  Nore  .     .     .  328 
My-sore' 314,  330 

Na-mur' 269,  414 

Nantes  (nants),  edict  of 258 

Napo'leon   325-330,    338,    339,    342,  344 

Napoleon  III 375 

Naseby  (naz'bi),  battle  of     .     .     .     .228 

Nationalists 385 

Navigation  Laws 234,  352 

Nelson,  Horatio  ....     327,  337,  338 
Netherlands,  188,  189,  271,  272,  275,  276, 

•279,  327;  see  Holland  and  Dutch 
Nev'ille's  Cross,  battle  of     ...        117 

New  Forest 62,  67 

New  Jersey 253 

New  Netherlands 246 

New  Or'le-ans,  battle  of 344 

New  York 240  ! 

New  Zealand 364,  402,  416  ' 

Newcastle  (nu'kas'l),  Duke  of  .    291,  301 

Newspapers 281 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac 282 

Ney  (na),  Marshal 342 

Nicolas,  Czqr  of  Russia 370 

Nightingale,  Florence 370 

Nile,  battle  of  the 330 

Non-jurors 264 

Norfolk  (nor'fak),  Duke  of  .     .     .     .191 

Norfolk,  Earl  of 107 

Norman  Great  Council     ....  64 

Norman  Kings 56 

Normandy 49,  69,  91 

North,  Lord 312,  315 

Northampton,  battle  of 145 

Northum'berland.  Earl  of     ....   134 


Northumberland,  John,  Duke  of    .     .  176 
North um'bria 35,  52,  59 

Gates  (ots),  Titus    .     .     .     249,  250,  255 

O'Connell,  Daniel 350 

O'glethorpe,  James 291 

Ohio  Land  Company 302 

Old  Age  Pension  Bill 408 

Oldcastle 137 

Open  door  policy 406 

Opium  War   ' 363 

Orange  Free  State  .     .     .     383,  388,  390 

Ordeal 44,  45,  78 

Orders  in  Council 339 

Or'le-ans,  Duke  of 135 

Orleans,  siege  of 141,  142 

Or'mu-lum 100,   101 

Oswy,  King 36 

Ot'terburn  .   129 


Oudenarde  (ou'den-ar-de)  ....  270 
Oxford  98,  226,  259 

Pal'es-tine 427 

Palat'inate,  War  of  the  264,  265,  267-271 

Pale,  the  English 130 

Palmerston  (pam 'er-stun) ,  Lord    .     .  375 

Paris,  treaty  of 307 

Parker,  Sir  Hyde 331 

Parliament    .    64,  65,  122,  207,  396-398 

Parliament  Bill 409 

Parr,  Catherine 170 

Patrick,  Saint 35,  36 

Pearse,  Pad'raic 430 

Peasant  Revolt 126-128 

Peel,  Sir  Robert ....     364,  365,  366 

Peers,  creation  of 355 

Peking' 374 

Pel  ham  (pgl'am),  Henry  .  .  .  291,  292 
Pelham,  Thomas,  Duke  of  Newcastle, 

291,  304 

Peninsular  War 340-342 

Penn,  William 253 

Pennsylvania 253,  254 

Percy,  Harry 135 

Percy,  House  of 129,  134 

Petition  and  Advice,  the  Humble  .     .  237 

Petition  of  Right 215 

Philip  II.  of  France  .  .  85,  86,  90,  92 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  .  .  .  178,  188,  192 
Philippa  of  Hainault  (ha-no')  113,  117,  124 
Pic 'ar-dy,  battle  of  ....  424-425 

Picts 23,  26,  60 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace     ....    171,   172 

Pilgrims 211 

Pinkie,  battle  of 173 

Pitt,  William,  the  Elder  .  .  .  304,  305 
Pitt,  William,  the  Younger  .  .  318,  319 
Plague,  the  Great 246 


INDEX 


XV11 


Plantagenet  (plan-taj'e-n6t),  Geoffrey 

73,  75 

Plantagenet  kings 75,   102 

Plassey,  battle  of 302 

Plymouth  (pllm'uth) 211 

Plymouth  Company  ....  210,  211 
Poitiers  (pwa-tya'),  battle  of  ...  120 

Poitou  (pwa-too') 73 

Pondicherry  (pon-dl-sher'rf)      ...  299 

Pope,  Alexander 281 

Popish  Plot 249,  250 

Portugal     .     .     .  275,  340,  341.  342,  351 

Postage,  penny 362 

Prayer  Book 175 

Presbyterianism 195,  222 

President  and  king,  powers  of   .    398,  399 

Press,  freedom  of  the '  .  269 

Preston,  battle  of 229 

Prestonpans,  battle  of 292 

Pretender,  the  Old 279,  285 

Pretender,  the  Young  ....    292,  293 

Prince  of  Wales 104 

Printing 150 

Profit  snaring 394 

Protectorate,  the 236,  237 

Protectorates       403 

Provisions  of  Oxford 98 

Prussia 342,  343,  351,  364 

Puritans     ....       194,  216,  227,  238 

emigration  to  New  England  .  240 

Pym,  John 214,  217,  221 

Quakers 252,  253 

Que-bec ',  capture  of 306 

Raikes  (raks),  Robert 296 

Railroads 352-354 

Raleigh  (ra'H),  Sir  Walter 

199,  200,  209-211 
Reform,  parliamentary, 

345,  350,  354-357,  377,  378,  385 
Reform  Bills  ....  355,  377,  378,  385 
Reformation,  Protestant  .  166,  167,  175 

Regicides,  the 244 

Reims  (remz) .  141 

Reliefs 61 

Restoration 242 

Retainers 134,  158 

"Revenge,"  the 195 

Revolution,  American .  .  .  .  312-315 
Revolution,  English  ....  260,  201 
Revolution,  French  ....  324,  351 
Rhodes,  Cecil  ....  387,  388.  406 

Richard  1 84-89 

Richard  II 126-131 

Richard  III 150-154 

Rizzio  (r£t'se-6) 187 

Roads 320,  354 


Ro-a-noke' 199 

Robert  of  Normandy  ...      65,  67,  69 

Roberts,  General 382,  390 

Robertson,  William 347 

Romans  in  Briton 20-24 

Rome 14,   19,  24 

Rom 'illy,  Sir  Samuel 345 

Rotten  boroughs  .  .  .  312,  318,  319 
Rouen  (rod-ax'),  siege  of  .  .  138,  139 
Round  Table,  Knights  of  the  ...  31 

Roundheads 224 

Royal  Exchange 198 

Royal  Society 282 

Rumania  (roo-ma 'nl-a) 418 

Rump  Parliament    .      229,  235,  236,  239 

Run'nymede 95 

Rupert,  Prince  ....  225,  226,  227 
Russell,  Lord  John  .  .  .  350,  351,  355 

Russell,  Lord  William 252 

Russia  198,  338,  341,  342,  364,  367,  370 

Rye  House  plot 251 

Rys  'wick,  peace  of 270 

Sacheverell  (sa-shev'er-«l),  Dr.  .  .  278 
St.  Albans  (al'banz),  battles  of  144,  145 

St.  He-le'na 344,  402 

St.  Vincent,  battle  of 327 

Saladin 84 

Salisbury  (salz 'bgr-I) ,  Lord  .     .    386,  404 

Sarajevo  (sa'ra-ya'-v6) 413 

Sa-voy' 275 

Saxon  Kings 37 

Saxons 26-32 

Schles  wig-Holstein  (shlas  'vlk-hol  'shtin) 

411 

Schools  .  45,  175,  176,  294,  378,  405 
Scotland, 

60,    105,    108,    110,    111,  129,  186,  277 

Scots  of  Ireland 23,  26,  60 

Scott,  Sir  Walter 346 

"Scrap  of  Paper" 413 

Scrooby 211 

Scu'tage 61,  78 

Scutari  (skoo'ta-re) 370 

Sebas'topol 368 

Sedgemoor,  battle  of 257 

Self-government       .     .     27,  28,  126,  386 

Sen 'lac  Hill 52 

Separatists 194 

S.-l»-.y  Rebellion.     .     .     .     .     .     371-373 

Septennial  Act 286 

Serbia 413 

Serfs  or  villeins 119,   128 

Settlement,  Act  of 272 

Seven  Weeks' War 411 

Seven  Years1  War 305-307 

Seymour  (se'm6r),  Jane 170 

Shaftesbury,  Lord   .     .     .     243,  250,  251 


XV111 


INDEX 


Shakespeare,  William  ....      11,  200 

Sheriff 44,  77 

Sher-iff-muir',  battle  of 285 

Shield  money 61,  78 

Ship  money 218,  219,  222 

Shrewsbury,  battle  of   ....    134,    1:;.". 

Sidney,  Algernon 252 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip 189 

Simnel,  Lambert 159 

Sinn  Fein  (shin  fan) 430 

Slave 27,  119 

Slave  trade 189 

Slavery  abolished 357 

Slide!!',  Jjhn 377 

Smith,  Adam 317 

Smuts  (smoots),  Jan    .    '.  •  .     .     .     .  417 
Somme  (s6m),  battle  of  the  ....  421 

South  Africa  Company 388 

South  African  Republic 383 

South  Sea  Company    ....    286,  287 
Spain, 

1S4,   188-195,  208,  209,  271,  290,  291 
Spanish  Succession,  War  of  the 

271,  274-277 

Spencer,  Herbert 396 

Spenser,  Edmund 200 

Sphere  of  influence 403 

Spinning  jenny 321 

Spurs,  battle  of  the 163 

Stamford  Bridge,  battle  of    .     .     .     .     51 

Stamp  Act 309,  310 

Standard,  battle  of  the     .     .     .     .  72,  73 

Staples 125 

Star  Chamber  Court    .     .      158,  220,   222 
Steam  engine       ....     322,  323,  324 

Steelyard 125 

Stephen 71-73 

Stephenson,  George 353 

Stone  Age 12 

Stone  of  Destiny 106 

Stonehenge  (ston'he'nj) 19 

Strafford,  Earl  of          .     .     217,  220,  221 

Straw,  Jack 127 

Strikes 392 

Strongbow 82,  83 

Stuart,  House  of 203 

Stur'dee,  Admiral 423 

Submarines 422 

Succession,  Act  of 169 

Sudan  (sod-dan')     .     .     .     384,385,387 
Suetonius  (swe-to 'nl-us)  .     .          .  21,  22 

Suez'  Canal 382 

Suffolk,  Duke  of 143 

Suffrage,  the    311,  350,  356,  378,  380,  385 

Supremacy,  Act  of 169 

Surajah  (sdo-ra'ja)  Dow'lah     .     .     .  301 

Surat  (sod-rat') 299 

Sussex,  snip 424 


Sweden 272,  331,  332 

Sweyn  (swan) 48 

Swilt,  Jonathan  .     , 2S1 

Tab'ard  Inn 124 

Tacitus  (tas'I-tus) 26-28 

Talavera  (ta-la-va'ra) 341 

Tariff,  or  duties  103,  214,  255,  318,  365-367 

Tasma'nia      . 364 

Taxation  Bill 408 

Taxes,  61,  78,  95,  108,  127,  136,  215;  see 
Duty 

Tea  tax 311 

Tel-el-Kebir  (kS-ber'),  battle  of     .     .384 

Tennyson,  Alfred 394 

Test  Act 249 

Tewkesbury,  battle  of 148 

Thack'eray,  William  Makepeace   .     .  395 

Thames  (tfimz) 16 

Thane 44 

Thirty-nine  Articles 175 

Thirty  Years'  War 166,   167 

Thorough,  policy  of 220 

Thralls 27 

Thurstan 72 

Ti-bet' Expedition 406 

Til 'sit,  treaty  of 338 

Tippoo'  Sahib  (sa'h6b) 330 

Tobacco     . 211 

Toleration  Act 264 

Tone,  Wolfe 333 

Tory 250,  251 

Tos'tig 51 

Tournament 88,  89 

Tower  of  London 56,   131 

Town  meeting  and  officers    .      27,  28,  44 

Towton,  battle  of 14") 

Trade  160,  280,  289,  29D,  297,  298,  318,  339 
effect  of  crusades  on   .     .     .     .86 

with  the  East 212 

Trade  combinations      ....     393,  394 

Trades  unions 392 

Traf-al-gar' 337 

Transportation    .     .      320,  321,  352,  353 
Transvaal  (trans-valO  383,  388-390,  405 

"Trent"  affair 376 

Triennial  Act 286 

Triple  Alliance 412 

Triple  Entente  (aN-taxt ')      .     .     .     .  412 

Troyes  (trwa),  treaty  of 139 

Trusts 393,  394 

Tudor,  House  of  156 

Tun'ge-mot 27,  28 

Tyler,  Wat 127,    1-N 

Tyndall,  John 396 

Ty-rone',  Earl  of 19(i 


Uniformity,  Act  of  . 


175 


INDEX 


XIX 


Union  of  South  Africa 406 

Union  with  Ireland,  Act  of  .  ,  .  334 
Union  with  Scotland,  Act  of  ...  277 

United  Irishmen 333 

United  States  .  315,  344,  352,  376,  377 
Utrecht  (u'trtkt),  peace  of  .  .  279,  290 

Vagrant  Act 174 

Van  Tromp,  Admiral 234 

Venice,  trade  routes  of      ...    126,   104 

Verdun  (vSr-dux') 421 

Versailles  (ver-salz'),  treaty  of  (1783)  315 

Congress 427 

peace  treaty  (1919)    .     .     .427 
Victoria      ....      359,  360,  386,  390 

Victorian  Age 404 

Vill 44,   119 

Villeins  and  villenage  ....    119,   128 
Villeneuve  (vel-nev')    ....    336,  337 
Villiers  (vfl'lerz),  Charles      .     .     .     .366 
Villiers,    George,    Duke    of    Bucking- 
ham    209,  214,  215 

Vimeiro  (ve'-ma 'e'-rdo) 340 

Vhny  (.vc-me')  Ridge 421 

Vinegar  Hill 333 

Vittoria  (v4t-to're-a),  battle  of  .  .342 
Vor'tigern 28,  29 

Wagram  (va'gram),  battle  of    ...  341 

Wakefield,  battle  of 145 

W:ik-s 31,   104,   134 

Wallace,  William 108 

Walls,  Roman 23 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert     ....    285,  288 

Walter,  Hubert 89 

War  of  1812 344 

Warbeck,  Perkin 160 

Wars  of  the  Roses  .  .  .  143-148,  154 
Warwick  (w6r'Ik),  Earl  of  .  .  146-14S 
Washington,  George  ....  302,  313 

Waterloo',  battle  of 343 

Watt,  James 322,  323 

."Vedmore,  peace  of ......    41-43 


Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,   Duke 

of  .  .  330,  340,  341,  343,  351,  357 
Wentworth,  Thomas  .  .  217,  220,  221 
Wesley,  John  .....  294-296 

Wesleyan  movement 296 

Wessex 31,  32,  39 

Westminster  Abbey     ...    58,  97,  161 

Wexford 233 

Whig 250,  251 

Whitby,  council  at 36 

"White  Ship"    ........     70 

Whitefield  (whlt'feld),  George    .    294,  295 

Wilberforce,  William 319 

Wilkes  (wnks),  John    ....    311,  312 

William  1 50,  57-65 

William  II 65-67 

William  III 249,  262-272 

William  IV 354-358 

Windsor,  House  of 284 

Winthrop,  John 240 

Wit'e-na-ge-mote 44,  64 

Wolfe,  General 306 

Wolseley  (wdolz'H),  Sir  Garnet  .  .  384 
Wolsey  (wdol'zl),  Thomas  .  .  165,  167 

Woman  suffrage 428 

Woodville,  Elizabeth 147 

Wool 115,   143,   197 

Worcester  (woos'ter),  battle  of       .     .  233 
Wordsworth,  William  ......  347 

World's  fair,  first     .     .  ...  367 

World  War 411-427 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher  .  ,  247,  270 
Wyatt's  Rebellion  ...  .  178,  179 
Wyc'lif,  John 122 

York,  House  of 146 

York,  James,  Duke  of       .      249-253,  254 

York,  Richard,  Duke  of   .     .     .    143,  145 

Ypres  (e'pr') 415,  421 

Zulu  (zoo  loo)  War 383 

Zut'phen,  battle  of 189 


-1  oo  -Co 


91 


DC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  669  024     2 


